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Dred Scott v. Sandford
An enslaved person, Dred Scott, sued for his freedom. After residing in a free state, he argued that he was now free. However, his case was thrown out by the Supreme Court, as they claimed he did not have the right to sue in a federal court as he was not a citizen. This case decided that a Black American whose ancestors had been imported as slaves were not citizens. -
13th Amendment
Following the Civil War, slavery was officially abolished on a national level with the passing and subsequent ratification of the 13th amendment. The 13th amendment stated that no slavery or involuntary servitude would be allowed in the United States, except for in punishment of a crime a person was lawfully convicted of. -
14th Amendment
Arguably the most important amendment ever, the 14th amendment was meant to offer protections for freed slaves. The 14th amendment states that no state may deprive a citizen of life, liberty, or the pursuit of happiness without due process of law. For the first time, this amendment directly referred to states and protected citizens from mistreatment of states. This became the basis for incorporating the Bill of Rights into the states. It also established natural-born citizenship. -
15th Amendment
As the last Reconstruction amendment, the 15th amendment established that neither the federal nor the state government could prohibit a citizen from voting based on their "race, color, or previous condition of servitude". This was aimed to extend the right to vote to freed slaves, although they faced other obstacles in voting. -
Jim Crow Era
Following Reconstruction, Jim Crow laws in the South (and some other areas) enforced strict racial segregation. Black Americans were also disenfranchised by any means possible, including force at times. The Jim Crow era does not have a set ending date, but is commonly agreed to end around the time when segregation began to be outlawed following Brown v. Board of Education. -
Plessy v. Ferguson
Following his arrest for sitting in a white-only traincar, Plessy argued that separating services by race violated his fourteenth amendment rights. However, the Supreme Court held that if provisions were "separate but equal," then they were not in violation of the Equal Protections Clause. This allowed for continued segregation across the country, and factored greatly into the Jim Crow Era. -
19th Amendment
Following decades of protests and efforts, the 19th Amendment provided women the right to vote on the national level, and also prevented any state from preventing the right to vote based on gender. While this was still a major stepping-stone for voting rights, many women of color still faced massive setbacks in their own right to vote. -
Equal Rights Amendment
While never ratified, the Equal Rights Amendment was proposed in 1923 to offer Constitutional legal protections for women regarding gender equality between women and men. The topics that would be impacted would be things such as divorce, property owing, job opportunities, and more. While other protections have been passed, there are still some today who argue for the passing of the ERA. -
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka
The "separate but equal" doctrine that had been established in Plessy v. Ferguson was overturned in this landmark decision. The Supreme Court decided that "separate but equal" inherently led to unequal, and that this was in violation of the 14th Amendment rights of Black Americans. This case is often considered the spark of the Civil Rights movement, and integration happened slowly but surely following the ruling. -
Civil Rights Act of 1964
Often heralded as one of the most significant Civil Rights legislations of all time, the Civil Rights Act prohibited discrimination based upon race, sex, color, religion, or national origin. The Act was proposed by President John F. Kennedy, but was signed by Lyndon B. Johnson following Kennedy's assassination. It was extremely difficult to pass due to extreme racism and reluctancy from white leadership in the government at the time. -
Affirmative Action
Affirmative Action is a concept that is meant to improve opportunities for minorities in both employment and educational opportunities. The goal is to promote diversity and offer opportunities to citizens who have faced different challenges throughout their lives. It began following the CRA of 1964, signed into law by Lyndon B. Johnson. -
Voting Rights Act of 1965
Again signed into law by Lyndon B. Johnson, the Voting Rights Act outlawed unjust limitations placed on voting, such as literacy tests or poll taxes that were being commonly implemented in the South to suppress Black voters. Widespread protests are cited as a major reason for the act's passing. Following the Act, Black citizens registered at a much higher rate. -
Reed v. Reed
Following their separation, both the husband and wife wanted to be responsible for their late son's estate. However, Idaho Probate Code stated that men gained automatic preference over women in these cases, which Sally Reed felt was a violation of the Equal Protection Clause. The Court ruled that the law was unconstitutional and that sex could not be a determinant in legal proceedings. -
Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
After being rejected from medical school at the University of California, Bakke sued the school on the grounds that he was being treated unfairly due to his race. 16 spots were withheld for non-white students, but Bakke had better test scores than all 16 of those admitted. The Supreme Court ruled that if race was being used in a definitive and absolute basis to determine admissions, it was unconstitutional. -
Bowers v. Hardwick
After being seen engaging in sodomy, illegal in Georgia at the time, Michael Hardwick was arrested. However, he argued that laws preventing consensual sodomy were unconstitutional. In an extremely close decision, the court ruled that sodomy was not expressly protected in the Constitution and states could legally outlaw it, which would later be overturned by Lawrence v. Texas. -
Americans with Disabilities Act
The Americans with Disabilities Act, signed by George H. W. Bush, established reasonable accommodations would be required for those with disabilities in public spaces, like ramps or handicap parking. While there have been many improvements, the rollout was extremely slow and not all areas have fully complied. However, there has been much progress and there are still improvements being made. -
Motor Voter Act
Formally known as the National Voter Registration Act, the Motor Voter Act simplified the voter registration process. Specifically, it allowed for anyone who renewed their driver's license to register (or anyone who applied for assistance). Signed by Bill Clinton, it was meant to allow for disadvantaged populations to vote. -
Lawrence v. Texas
Lawrence was discovered engaging in sexual acts with another man, which was a violation of Texas law. He was convicted, but argued that the law was unconstitutional. Contrary to Bowers v. Hardwick, the Supreme Court ruled in Lawrence v. Texas that the criminalization of sexual behavior between those of the same sex is unconstitutional under the due process clause. -
Obergefell v. Hodges
Citing both the Equal Protection Clause and the Due Process Clause, a coalition of same-sex couples claimed that their right to marriage was inherently constitutional. The Supreme Court ruled that same-sex marriage was protected, although not specifically mentioned in the constitution. Now, all states must provide marriage licenses to same-sex couples due to federal law.