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Dred Scott v. Sandford
The Dred Scott decision ruled (7–2) that a slave (Dred Scott) who had resided in a free territory was not entitled to his freedom and that African Americans were not citizens of the United States (could not sue). The majority opinion by Chief Justice Roger B. Taney stated that Congress had no power to exclude slavery from the territories (invalidating the Missouri Compromise in 1820). The decision added fuel to the sectional controversy and pushed the country closer to civil war. -
13th Amendment
The 13th amendment abolished slavery and involuntary servitude. The Constitution was amended to say, "Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction." Later the 14th and 15th amendments are added to shift responsibility for protecting rights to the federal government if states failed to do so. -
14th Amendment
The 14th Amendment granted citizenship to all people born or naturalized in the United States (including former slaves) and guaranteed all citizens “equal protection of the laws.” It has proven to be an important amendment addressing such issues as the rights of citizens, equal protection under the law, due process, and the requirements of the states. It also further protected citizens from freedom infringements from the state of federal government. -
Plessy v. Ferguson
In this case the Supreme Court (7 to 1) advanced the “separate but equal” clause for determining how constitutional racial segregation laws were. This case dove into the 14th Amendment’s equal protection clause, which prohibits the states from denying equal protection to anyone in the state. The case created racial segregation laws by means of separate and 'equal' public facilities for African Americans and whites. It served as a precedent until it was overturned in Brown v. Board of Education. -
19th amendment
The 19th amendment states that citizens' right to vote shall not be denied because of a persons sex. It was first drafted in 1878 by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton after the Seneca Falls Convention. This amendment is important because it furthers women's rights during this period, adding onto the women's rights movement from the 1840s. Although, the question of race has not yet been considered, and law is only applicable for white women at this point in time. -
Reed v. Reed
In a unanimous decision, the Supreme Court decided that the Idaho law that "males must be preferred to females" was unconstitutional. In this case the Reeds went to court over which one of them would receive their son's land. In Idaho the probate code mandated that the land go to Cecil Reed (the father). The reason that this was decided unconstitutional was that it violated the 14th amendment's equal protection clause. -
White Primaries
The white primaries were specifically done to discriminate against blacks during the time, only allowing white men to vote. In 1923, Texas required all primary voters to be white. In the court case Smith v. Allwright (1994) this law was deemed unconstitutional as a violation of the 14th amendment which granted African Americans equal and civil rights. -
Brown v. Board of Education
A unanimous decision determined that "separate but equal" was not actually equal, and violates the equal protection clause of the 14th amendment. In the case, African American students were being prohibited from entering public schools. When tried in lower courts, Plessy v. Ferguson dismissed this case because segregation was permitted as long as it was equal. The importance of this case was that it was at the start of the Civil Rights movement, being a large turning point for African Americans -
Affirmative Action
Affirmative action was an effort to improve opportunities for minority groups and women. President Kennedy signed Executive Order 10925, ordering that federal projects “take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, and employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin.” Affirmative action tried to give fair access to employment opportunities and create a workforce that is an accurate reflection of the U.S.'s demographics. -
24th Amendment
The 24th Amendment outlawed poll tax as a voting requirement in federal elections. At the time, five states maintained poll taxes which targeted African-American voters: Virginia, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, and Texas. Poll taxes, grandfather clauses and intimidation, prevented African Americans from having political power, especially in the South. The poll tax worsened “Jim Crow” laws, developed in the post-Reconstruction South, which aimed to hurt black voters and institute segregation. -
Poll taxes
Poll taxing was another way for southern states to limit people's ability to vote. Although the 15th amendment gave the African American men the right to vote, the poll taxing limited both poor black and white men who were poor. This was until the 24th amendment stopped the ability to tax voting. -
Civil Rights Act of 1964
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed discrimination based on race, color, sex, religion or national origin. The process of change had been going on for years, with Plessy v. Ferguson and Brown v. Board of Education. In addition to these landmark court cases, many sit ins, boycotts and freedom rides occurred as well. The Civil Rights Act was also influenced by many people such as Martin Luther King Jr., Rosa Parks, and Lyndon B. Johnson, who aided to its success. -
Voting rights act of 1965
The voting rights act outlawed the use of voting practices that discriminated against African Americans. this act was meant to enforce the 15th amendment which granted male African Americans the right to vote. the significance of the act is that after almost 100 years the amendment was finally enforced. -
15th Amendment
15th Amendment guaranteed that the right to vote could not be denied based on “race, color, or previous condition of servitude.” The amendment complemented the 13th and 14th amendments, which abolished slavery and guaranteed citizenship to African Americans. States' preventative measures such as poll taxes, literacy tests, and grandfather clauses were also squashed. The passage of the 15th Amendment effectively empowered African American men while denying the right to vote to all women. -
Equal Rights Amendment
The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) is a proposed (never passed) amendment designed to guarantee equal rights for all American citizens regardless of sex. Written by Alice Paul and Crystal Eastman, the amendment tried to end the legal distinctions between men and women in terms of divorce, property, and employment. Conservative women opposed, saying the ERA would disadvantage housewives and cause women to be drafted in the military. States have made their own versions of this amendment though. -
Regents of the University of California v. Bakke
This case declared affirmative action constitutional but invalidated the use of racial quotas (numerical requirements for admittance). Allan Bakke, a white man, had twice applied to UC medical school, and even though his grades were superior to some of the minorities accepted (reserved minority seats), he was still denied. Although the ruling legalized affirmative action, in later decisions the court limited such programs, and several states prohibited affirmative action programs based on race. -
Bowers v. Hardwick
In Bowers v. Hardwick the Supreme Court upheld (5–4) a Georgia state law banning sodomy. The case arose on August 3, 1982, when a police officer who was in the home of Michael Hardwick in Atlanta, witnessed him and a male companion in a bedroom engaging in sex. This case severely diminished gay people's protection. The ruling was overturned by the court 17 years later in Lawrence v. Texas (2003), which struck down a Texas state law that criminalized homosexual sex between consenting adults. -
Americans with Disabilities Act
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), provided civil rights protections to individuals with physical/mental disabilities and guaranteed them equal opportunity in public accommodations, employment, transportation, and government services. The act, which defined a disability as a “physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more of the major life activities,” was signed into law by Pres. H.W. Bush, with widespread bipartisan support. -
Lawrence v. Texas
In a 6-3 opinion delivered by Justice Kennedy, the Court held that the Texas statute making it a crime for two persons of the same sex to engage in consenting sexual conduct violates the due process clause. Gay rights groups deemed the case historic in the evolution of civil rights in the U.S., whereas conservatives deemed the decision a sign of moral decay. This case overturned Bowers v. Hardwick (1986) to give gay individuals more protection and also invalidated sodomy laws in other states. -
Obergefell v. Hodges
In Obergefell v. Hodges the Supreme Court ruled (5–4) that state bans on same-sex marriage and on recognizing same-sex marriages are unconstitutional under the due process and equal protection clauses of the 14th Amendment. In a majority opinion authored by Justice Kennedy, the Court examined the fundamental rights guaranteed to all citizens and the harm done to individuals by delaying the implementation of such rights. This gave gay and lesbian people more protection under the Constitution.
