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- Self-determination (e.g. Baltics, Turkey, Belgium)
- France re-gain Alsace-Lorraine
- Austria-Hungary
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- Ended involvement in WW1
- 54% of industry + 89% of coal mines taken (compared to Germany's 15%)
- £300mil
- lost all of Poland and Finland
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- Sailors refused to board a hopeless offensive against the British Navy
- Led to the abdication of the Kaiser and the end of the German Empire
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- In January 1919, left-wing Spartacists led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht attempted to instill soviet governments
- 100,000 striked, many stopped after lack of organisation
- Luxemburg and Liebknecht were captured and killed by Freikorps forces
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- Palace of Versailles
- Lasted 12 months
- No defeated nations invited
- Big three often ignored the advice of diplomats
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- Austria lost territory to Italy, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Yugoslavia
- Army limited to 30,000 troops, no conscription, no navy
- Anschluss banned
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- Bulgaria lost territory to Greece, Romania, and Yugoslavia
- Army limited to 20,000 troops, no conscription, no air force
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- Vilna, with its largely Polish speaking population, became a new seat in Lithuanian government
- Two days later, the Polish army annexed Vilna and Lithuania appealed to the LoN
- The League did nothing, Britain + France did not escalate the situation
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Places Hitler in charge of Nazi Party
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- Led by Wolfgang Kapp
- Seized Berlin, declared himself Chancellor for 4 days
- Ebert called for general strike, paralyzing the coup
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- American chair empty when League opened in Jan 1920
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- Hungary lost territory to Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia
- Army limited to 35,000 troops, no conscription
- Hungary lost territory to Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia
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- Ottoman Empire lost territory to Greece, Italy, France, and Britain
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- The Aaland Islands were a Finnish territory with a largely Swedish population. The islanders wanted independence
- The islands were given to Finland but demilitarized
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Between Germany and Soviet Russia, normalizing relations and promoting economic cooperation
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- The Washington Conference (1921-1922) aimed to limit naval arms and reduce tensions in the Pacific.
- Major powers, including the US, UK, Japan, and France, agreed to limit naval tonnage and respect territorial holdings in the Pacific.
- The Washington Conference (1921-1922) aimed to limit naval arms and reduce tensions in the Pacific.
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- After Tellini was ambushed, Mussolini bombarded and occupied Corfu. Greece appealed to the League.
- The League condemned Mussolini, but he demanded the issue go to the Conference of Ambassadors, threatening to leave.
- Britain and France disagreed; Britain was not ready to act without France, focused on the Ruhr. Both argued Italy’s actions weren’t warlike.
- Greece had to apologise and pay Mussolini. He withdrew on 27th September, claiming victory.
- After Tellini was ambushed, Mussolini bombarded and occupied Corfu. Greece appealed to the League.
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- In 1923, France and Belgium invaded the Ruhr region to seize coal and resources
- Germany responded with passive resistance, leading to hyperinflation and economic crisis
- In 1923, France and Belgium invaded the Ruhr region to seize coal and resources
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- Replaced the Treaty of Sèvres, recognizing Turkey's borders
- Turkey regained lost territories, including parts of eastern Anatolia and Istanbul
- Replaced the Treaty of Sèvres, recognizing Turkey's borders
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- Bürgerbräukeller beer hall
- Failed as Ernst Rohm allowed Otto von Lossow to leave to his wife, when in reality, he called authorities. Hitler also thought he'd gain support as they marched, but was wrong
- let off lightly with 5 years in prison, only served 8 months after parole
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- The US provided a loan of 800 million marks to stabilize the German economy.
- Germany’s economy grew, with industrial production increasing by 40% between 1924 and 1929
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- In 1925, Greek forces accidentally bombed a Bulgarian village near Petrich, killing civilians
- Bulgaria used the incident to provoke tensions, leading to military clashes between Greece and Bulgaria
- They obeyed, but Greece complained that it seemed like they had one ruling for a small country but another for a big one (implied Italy)
- In 1925, Greek forces accidentally bombed a Bulgarian village near Petrich, killing civilians
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Against democracy
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- Signed in 1925, the Locarno Treaties aimed to secure peace in Europe by guaranteeing borders between Germany, France, and Belgium.
- Germany agreed to demilitarize the Rhineland and promised not to resort to war to resolve disputes with its western neighbors.
- Signed in 1925, the Locarno Treaties aimed to secure peace in Europe by guaranteeing borders between Germany, France, and Belgium.
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Largely thanks to Locarno
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- Signed in 1928, the Kellogg-Briand Pact condemned war as a means of resolving disputes and promoted peaceful conflict resolution.
- 15 nations initially signed, later growing to 65, but it lacked enforcement mechanisms, making it largely symbolic.
- Signed in 1928, the Kellogg-Briand Pact condemned war as a means of resolving disputes and promoted peaceful conflict resolution.
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- The Young Plan (1929) reduced Germany's reparations to 112 billion gold marks and extended the payment period to 59 years.
- The plan also led to the withdrawal of Allied occupation forces from the Ruhr region.
- The Young Plan (1929) reduced Germany's reparations to 112 billion gold marks and extended the payment period to 59 years.
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- Chinese troops allegedly attacked South Manchurian Railway (controlled by Japan)
- Japanese troops used this as an excuse to set up a provisional government called Manchukuo
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- took over a year to present
- judgement was clear - Japan acted unlawfully and must leave
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- Attempted to get nations to disarm
- Failure as there was distrust form nation to nation (especially between France and Germany)
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- 42-1 votes (only Japan voting against)
- left the League a month later
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A week later invades Jehol
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- Continued part of Operation Nekka
- Invasion of the rest of Jehol a week after leaving the League of Nations
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Austrian Nazis attempted a coup in Austria, assassinating Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss, but the coup failed.
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- The Hoare-Laval Pact (1935) was a secret proposal by Britain and France to give two-thirds of Abyssinia to Italy to stop its invasion.
- The plan was leaked, causing public outrage, and it was abandoned, humiliating Britain and France.
- The Hoare-Laval Pact (1935) was a secret proposal by Britain and France to give two-thirds of Abyssinia to Italy to stop its invasion.
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- In 1935, a plebiscite was held in the Saar, a League of Nations-administered region, to decide its future.
- 90.8% voted to reunite with Germany, boosting Hitler’s confidence and legitimacy.
- In 1935, a plebiscite was held in the Saar, a League of Nations-administered region, to decide its future.
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- In 1935, Italy, France, and Britain formed the Stresa Front to oppose Germany’s rearmament and violation of the Treaty of Versailles
- The front quickly weakened as Britain signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement, undermining unity.
- In 1935, Italy, France, and Britain formed the Stresa Front to oppose Germany’s rearmament and violation of the Treaty of Versailles
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- The Anglo-German Naval Agreement (1935) allowed Germany to build a navy up to 35% of the size of Britain’s fleet
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- approx 20,000 troops marched in with orders to retreat if there was any opposition
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Continued to 1939
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- In July 1937, Japan launched a full-scale invasion of China after the Marco Polo Bridge Incident near Beijing
- Despite early Japanese victories, China resisted with guerrilla warfare, and the war merged into WWII after 1941
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Feb-March
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- In 1938, Britain, France, Italy, and Germany met at the Munich Conference to address Germany’s demand for the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia
- The conference resulted in the Munich Agreement, where Britain and France appeased Hitler by allowing the annexation of the Sudetenland without Czechoslovakian consent
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March
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March
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May
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March
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August
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Britain and France declare war on Germany
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- Agreements: Stalin joins fight against Japan / Germany divided into 4 zones / Big Three join UN / Soviet Sphere of Influence
- Disagreement: Stalin wanted border to move West into Poland, which in turn could move into Germany. Churchill didn't approve, but knew little could be done. He persuaded Roosavelt to agree as long as USSR didn't intervene in crushing communism in Greece
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- Churchill - Clement Atlee / Roosavel - Truman
- Stalin wanted to completely incapacitate Germany. Truman didn't want to repeat ToV / 20mil Russians died, Stalin wanted compensation from Germany. Truman refused again / Truman against 'Soviet Sphere of Influence'
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- co-ordinate various communist governments in East Europe
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The Truman Doctrine aimed to contain the spread of communism, offering U.S. support to countries resisting Soviet influence
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- The Marshall Plan provided over $12 billion in economic aid to help rebuild Western European countries after WWII
- Its goal was to prevent the spread of communism by stabilizing economies and fostering political stability
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- Stalin blockaded all supply lines in hope that the population would submit. Ramming into them would be an act of war
- The Berlin Airlift continued for 10 months. Total of 2.3mn of supplies
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- co-ordinated industries and trade in the Eastern European countries
- heavily favoured USSR (Poland forced to sell coal at 1/10 of price)
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- FDR = Federal Republic of Germany
- In May
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- GDR = German Democratic Republic
- October
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July: US sends troops to support S. Korea -- arrive in September
October: UN soldiers push communists to Yalu River (Chinese border). China pushes UN back
1951 June: more UN troops arrive, push coms to 38th parallel
1953 July: armistice signed at Punmunjom on 38th parallel -
Jul: Geneva agreement signed, splitting N and S Vietnam
1955 Oct: Ngo Dinh Diem president of S Vietnam through rigged election. US sends military advisors to support him
1957: Viet Minh start Guerrilla warfare in S Vietnam
1960: Vietcong formed (National Liberation Front or NLF). US aid to Diem increases
1963 Nov: Diem overthrown -
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1965: Operation Rolling Thunder begins
1968: VC launches Tet Offensive
1968 16th Mar: My Lai Massacre. Made public '69
1969: Ho Chi Minh dies, Nixon persues Vietnamisation
1973: Paris Peace Accords -- all US troops leave by Mar 1973 -
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- The Brezhnev Doctrine stated that the Soviet Union had the right to intervene in any socialist country to maintain communist rule and prevent counter-revolution
- It was used to justify the invasion of Czechoslovakia during the Prague Spring to stop reforms that threatened Soviet control
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Lech Walesa and 10k other Solidarity leaders in prison
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Glasnost: open debate on government policies
Perestroika: for first time in 60 years profit was legal -
Gorbachev spoke about planning to withdraw large numbers of troops, tanks, and aircraft from Easter Europe
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Mar: Gorbachev visited Lithuania to negotiate its independence. Was uncompromising, but they did it later that month anyway
May: Russian Republic elected Boris Yeltsin who made it clear he saw no future in a Soviet Union
Jul: Ukraine declared independence
1991 Apr: Georgia declares independence
Aug: Gorbachev's PM, Valentin Pavlov and head of armed forces, Dimitry Yazov held him prisoner in holiday home. Sent tanks and troops in attempt to keep control. Yeltsin emerged as opposition leader -
With the Berlin Wall down, Chancellor Helmut Kohl proposed German reunification. Gorbachev not enthusiastic, expecting it to be friendly to West (even having to accept it joining NATO, despite memories of WW2)
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After surviving the coup, he had no more position as Soviet leader. He announced his resignation and the end of the Soviet Union