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30,000 BCE
The Chauvet Cave Paintings, made by Prehistoric Humans during the Upper Paleolithic Period (ca. 30,000 BCE)
The Chauvet Cave Paintings are located in the South of France. The walls of the caves are covered with paintings of animals, displayed in representational imagery and abstract forms. The caves have been theorized to be places bonding, teaching, worshipping and performing. The paintings are classified as parietal art, specifically murals. Many of the animal sketches seem to either depict large packs or animals in motion. Either way, it demonstrates advanced skill and thought for ancient humans. -
6000 BCE
Seated Woman of Çatalhöyük, made by Prehistoric Turkish Humans during the Neolithic Period (ca. 6300-6000 BCE)
The seated Women of Çatalhöyük is made out of slightly fired clay which is significant as it is one of the larger markers of the shift between the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. As people settled down due to agriculture, they began forming larger communities impacting the art. Sculptures in the round and ceramics production greatly increased. This particular sculpture is thought to represent the shift in values for food, fertility, and survival. -
2550 BCE
Stonehenge, made by Prehistoric Humans during the Neolithic Period (ca. 2550-1600 BCE)
Stonehenge is a geometric formation of monoliths in England. The rocks are placed as posts and lintels to form dolmen. The arrangement of the rocks shows how advanced people were at the time; there was a lot of planning, coordination, and massive amounts of physical labor. It took roughly 700 years to complete the three phases of construction. Stonehenge was likely used as a place of worship towards the solar/lunar cycles which led to the calendars. It has also been uncovered as burial grounds. -
2548 BCE
Menkaure and Queen Sculpture made by Egyptians during the Old Kingdom Ancient Egyptian Period (ca. 2548-2530 BCE)
The Sculpture of Menkaure and Queen was carved from slate in the canonical proportions signature to Egyptians. The poses are rigid and artificial, displaying idealized anatomical shapes of the bodies. There is a balance between sharp vertical lines and counterbalancing horizontal lines. Each aspect of the sculpture is highly intentional and carries significance. Menkaure is shown as young, authoritative, and powerful. The Queen, recognized as Khamerernebty II is shown as fertile and assertive. -
2520 BCE
The Khafre Pyramid at Giza made by Egyptians and their slaves during the Old Kingdom Ancient Egyptian Period (ca. 2575-2450 BCE)
The Khafre Pyramid in Egypt is the largest and oldest pyramid that exists in Giza. It is constructed of large granite and limestone bricks. The Pyramids of Ancient Egypt were built during the Old Kingdom. They were used as divine burial tombs for the royals. They were buried with possessions and food to assist them in the afterlife, as well as their pets and servants. The pyramids serve as a place to connect the terrestrial gods, Pharaohs, and the spiritual gods such as Osiris, Ra, and Thoth. -
2100 BCE
Ziggurat of Ur made by the Sumerians during the Ancient Near East Period (ca. 2100 - 2050 BCE)
The Ziggurat of Ur was constructed as a step-pyramid like structure with a temple on top. The Ziggurats were made of both wet and baked clay bricks, so that they were tall enough to see outside of a cities wall. This height was crucial to inflict political intimidation and religious divinity. The temple on top would have been devoted to one god, this to Nanna, although the Sumerians had a theocratic society. The temple for Nanna seems to have been made from lapis lazuli which shows its power. -
1285 BCE
Judgment of Hunefer before Osiris made by Egyptians during the New Kingdom Ancient Egyptian Period (ca. 1285 BCE)
The Judgment of Hunefer before Osiris was done in ink on papyrus. It is a spell in a funerary text, the Book of the Dead. Each book was customized for the person. The spells are in registers with composite imagery. This specific spell displays the judgment of a person’s soul to determine if they were worthy to continue existing in the afterlife. The heart or soul is being weighed, there are judges, as well as Osiris, Anubis, and Thoth. Each god represented determines the ethics of the dead. -
575 BCE
The Ishtar Gate made by Neo-Babylonians during the Ancient Near East Period (ca. 575 BCE)
The Ishtar Gate was created to provide a main entry to a city for protection and worship. It is dedicated to the Goddess Ishtar of love and fertility. The gate was constructed with bricks and then stylized with lapis lazuli layers with low relief gold lions, aurochs, and dragons in composite registers. It was constructed under Nebuchadnezzar II who strengthened eleven miles of walls around the Neo-Babylonian city. The gate was designed to display the King’s power and inspire fear in others. -
539 BCE
The Cyrus Cylinder Seal made by Persians during the Ancient Near East Period (ca. 539 - 500 BCE)
The Cyrus Cylinder is carved from stone and used to imprint stories into clay. This seal tells the story of Cyrus the Great, the Persian who captured Babylon and set the captive peoples free. Some seals displayed images, signatures, or written text. The Cyrus Cylinder displays text written in cuneiform, which is considered to be the oldest written language. The story was likely used to express a shift in power. Rather than punish those they captured, the Persians celebrated cultural differences. -
432 BCE
The Parthenon made by Phidias, Ictinus, and Callicrates in the High Classical Period (ca. 447 - 432 BCE)
The Parthenon was built to honor the patron goddess of Athens. Athena was known as the goddess of wisdom which embodies their values of democracy, philosophy, and literature. It was constructed from marble. The outer columns were done in the doric order and formed a longitudinal structure. The metopes done in high relief and the pediments pieced as sculptures in the round were both facets of the doric order. The inner frieze and inner columns were done in the ionic order style with more details. -
350 BCE
Aphrodite of Knidos made by Praxiteles during the Late Classical Period (ca. 350 BCE)
The Aphrodite of Knidos is a revolutionary sculpture, credited with being the first instance of the female nude in this medium. Alexander the Great inspired multiple adaptations of art and cultures and the Canon of Polykleitos also shifted the focus of art. More dynamic poses were implemented, such as the contrapposto pose. Aphrodite is exposed in a moment of vulnerability and sexuality; she is washing herself but the details lead people to theorize that she seems aware of an audience. -
35 BCE
Laocoön and His Sons made by the sculptors of Rhodes during the Hellenistic Period of Ancient Greece (ca.40 - 30 BCE )
The sculpture of Laocoön and His Sons is a complex piece with lots of movement, balance, and tension. The marble sculpture displays theatrical poses, textures, and exaggerated human form, which is meant to be more aesthetically interesting. The narrative connects to the tale of The Trojan War; Laocoön discovered that the Greeks were inside the wooden horse and tried to warn the Trojans for which he was punished by the Gods. The audience experiences catharsis through agony and beauty. -
20 BCE
Augustus of Primaporta made by Romans (ca. 20 BCE)
The statue of Augustus of Primaporta is a marble statue that was used as propaganda. Augustus was Julius Caesar’s adopted son, making it common for him to make both political connections for power and relations to divine mythology. Here Augustus is portrayed in an authoritative stance, barefoot. There are signs of divinity in the carvings on the chest plate and on the bottom part of the piece. Being barefoot is a sign divinity and there is a cupid next to Augustus hinting at a relation to Venus. -
80
The Colosseum made during the Imperial Roman Period (ca. 72 - 80 CE)
The Colosseum was constructed during the Flavian Dynasty. It stands as a monument to how powerful the Romans were. The invention of concrete allowed them to create larger and more complex architecture. The Colosseum was used for entertainment purposes, specifically with gladiator fights, hunting, and performances. The outer structure has hundreds of archways which are framed by Tuscanic, ionic, and corinthian columns. -
192
The Commodus as Hercules bust made by Romans during the Late Empire (ca. 191-192 CE)
The bust of Commodus as Hercules was made during the Late Empire of Rome. During this period, Rome was tetrarchic, meaning that the emperors in power had to connect themselves to historical icons of power. The marble sculpture does this by relation to Hercules who famously conquered twelve labors to reach divinity. The bust displays the skin of the Nemean lion and the golden apples of Hesperides. Below the bust there are two Amazons supporting him. Amazons are known for their strength. -
426
The Good Shepherd made by the Byzantines in Italy (ca. 425 - 426 CE)
The mosaic is located in the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia. It displays a shepherd taking care of a flock of sheep which is symbolic of Jesus Christ caring for the Christian people. The landscape background connects the divine and physical realms. The imagery is simplistic with natural poses and a symmetrical layout, resembling antiquity. There is a halo around his head which marks him as a divine figure. The gold details throughout would reflect light and evoke a sense of belonging in the viewer. -
537
The Hagia Sophia reconstructed by Anthemius and Isidorus in Byzantine (ca. 360 - 1453 CE).
The Hagia Sophia was originally built by Constantine the Great but reconstructed under the Emperor Justinian. He brought materials from across the empire to demonstrate wealth and influence. Earthquakes led to damage of the domes which where then rebuilt and raised. The structure consists of a rectangular shape covered with one central dome and half domes for support. The height of the dome was designed to connect the spiritual and divine realm to the physical one. -
547
Empress Theodora and Her Attendants made by Byzantines (ca. 547 CE)
The Empress Theodora and Her Attendants mosaic embodies the ideal features of the Byzantine art style. There is an emphasis on rich colors with heavy gold ornamentation, abstracted figures that are symbolic, and flatter compositions lacking depth. The mosaic is located in the Church of San Vitale. Here, Theodora is depicted presenting offerings to Christ. She wears formal draped clothing and her attendants seem well dressed. The gold detailing would have emphasized how significant she was. -
691
The Dome of the Rock made by Umayyad in Jerusalem (ca. 691- 692 CE)
The Dome of the Rock is a highly significant religious structure for Jews, Christians, and Muslims. It is believed to be the site of the second Jewish temple as well as the place Abraham would have sacrificed Isaac, and the location Muhammad stopped before ascending to heaven. It is a complex building with total symmetry and geometric stylization. The dome is wooden with gilt aluminum and bronze causing it to shine in the light. The exterior has stone masonry, mosaics, and glazed ceramic tiles. -
1135
The Last Judgment in Cathedral of Saint - Lazare made by Autun Burgundy in France (ca. 1120 - 1145 CE).
The Last Judgment Tympanum in the Cathedral of Saint Lazare displays Jesus in a mandorla with angels, demons, and the souls of people being weighed. It is a low relief carving above the main entrance. To the right of Jesus there await a line of people who are being judged, some being lifted to Heaven by angels. Most people at this time were illiterate so the visual imagery was meant to inspire people and frighten sinners. The souls are depicted as nude figures which is symbolic of vulnerability. -
1144
The Church of Saint Denis made by Abbot Suger (ca. 1140 - 1144 CE)
The Church of Saint Denis is the burial place for the royal family that was re-constructed from a ninth century church. Abbot Suger altered the design to use visual art and light to transport viewers to a heavenly place. The pointed arches and ribbed vaulting allowed for less thick walls, since the pressure went down not out, which made space for large stained glass windows. The openness of the church evokes a sense of elegance and gracefulness. Suger believed that there was divinity in light. -
1173
The Campanile of Pisa made by Piazza dei Miracoli (ca. 1063 - 1173 CE).
The Campanile of Pisa has similar features to Roman and Byzantine architecture. It follows a basilica floor plan with double aisles and corinthian columns. When the Campanile was constructed, it was built near a marsh which created an unstable foundation leading to the lean it has become famous for. It has a geometric stylized exterior with the rows of columns that circle each tier. The Cathedral’s placement was unique for its time as it was in a cemetery and outside of the city boundaries. -
1235
Rose Window in Chartres Cathedral, France (ca. 1230 - 1235 CE).
Stained glass windows became a signifying feature of the Gothic era of art and architecture. They were most popular in Gothic churches and cathedrals. The Chartres Cathedral has a large stained glass installation in the shape of a rose. It was donated by the royal house. Most of the windows display religious scenes from both the New and Old Testament and they are stylized in a way that tells a narrative. When light shines through the windows it bathes the audience in the light of god. -
1250
Great Friday Mosque made by Jenné people in Africa (ca. 1200 - 1907 CE).
The Great Friday Mosque was made of mud bricks and plaster which was reapplied and reinforced annually. The building has three minarets with Tukulor style facades. Throughout the Mosque there are ventilation systems that lead to the roof, where people often prayed. It has been rebuilt three times due to weather. It is a rectangular plan structure with a partially enclosed interior wall. On top of the pillars there are ornamental ostrich eggs which was used to symbolize fertility. -
1300
The Crowned Head of a Ruler made by the Ife People in Africa (ca. 12th - 15th CE).
The Crowned Head of a Ruler from Ife was made of bronze through the process of lost-wax casting. During this process the sculpture is made of clay, covered in wax and molded, layered with more clay and then baked. This melts the wax creating pathways in the clay which are then filled with molten metal. This bust has intense detailing with lines all across the skin which may have represented scarification or wealth. It is realistically carved, with a crown that seems to have a shell. -
1350
Arm Reliquary of Saint Pantaleon made by Rhenish in Germany (ca. 1250 - 1499 CE).
The Arm Reliquary of Saint Pantaleon is a Romanesque relic. It is a speaking reliquary as it holds the arm bone of Saint Pantaleon who was known as a holy doctor and became the patron saint of physicians. The Reliquary is made from a combination of silver, gold, rock crystal, and glass. The sleeve has gold leaf stylized detailwork along the arm and wrist. Relics were so influential at this time due to pilgrimages and the belief that time in purgatory could be shortened. -
1360
The Virgin and Child Enthroned made by Giotto di Bondone (ca.? CE)
The Virgin and Child Enthroned by Bondone brings the divine realm to the terrestrial one. There is an inclusion of the audience in the perspective of space in the painting. Mary occupies space with high modeling and foreshortened knees. The Christ child has depth as well. The background consists of angels, and traditional gold embellishment. There is a juxtaposition of colors with dark, bold instances. All of the figures look more realistic but still remain slightly abstracted. -
1450
The Qibla Iwan made by the Turks in Iran (ca. 1000 - 1799 CE).
The Qibla Iwan is located in the Great Mosque of Isfahan on the south side. It marks the proper direction to pray in which you can determine due to the two minarets that erect from it. An Iwan is a vaulted archway that opens to a courtyard. Muslim Iwans have muqarnas within them which is a signature geometric stylization. The Qibla Iwan is decorated with colorful tiles, likely made from lapis lazuli. There are no icons in any of the artwork, rather it displays highly geometric forms. -
1481
The Creation of Adam by Michelangelo in the Sistine Chapel (ca. 1475 - 1481 CE)
The Sistine Chapel in the Vatican is covered in frescoes painted by Michelangelo. The Creation of Adam is arguably the most famous of these works. The figures are painting in a realistic style, mostly anatomically correct with unnatural poses to appear more graceful. There is a lot of complex modeling and beautiful detail work that cause depth in a way that the figures look as if they are sculptures, not paintings. During the Renaissance art was inspired by antiquity which is depicted here. -
1490
The Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci (ca. 1490 CE).
Leonardo da Vinci utilized geometric ideals into his artworks and inventions which can be viewed as a connection to Neoplatonism. The Vitruvian Man is a sketch from the process of fully understanding human anatomy and determining the “ideal form”. Leonardo created a new canon of proportions with eight units as opposed to seven. The male form is almost symmetrical being split down the middle and displayed in separate poses. There is a definitive comprehension of the muscular systems of the body. -
1511
The School of Athens made by Rafael in the Vatican in Rome (ca. 1510 - 1511 CE)
The School of Athens embodies the Renaissance mindset of antiquity by displaying Roman archways and classical sculptures of Greco-Roman gods. The subjects are highly realistic with heavy modeling, foreshortening, and layering. The one point perspective was a key feature as the perspective lines creates an optical illusion for the viewer and connects them to the piece. Raphael was very thorough when designing the individuals as their poses and placement correlate to the ideas they believed in. -
1550
Memorial head of an Oba made by the Yoruba culture in Benin, Africa (ca. 1500 - 1599 CE).
The Memorial Head of an Oba was made of brass through lost-wax casting. The Oba, or King, has a cap of woven coral beads and detail marks for hair. There is a hole on the top of the bust that would have held a carved elephant tusk. These busts were placed inside of a shrine to honor and respect the ancestors. This shrine would have contained several busts and been located in the house of the Oba. The Yoruba People believed that the spirit could live within a sculpture. -
Judith Beheading Holofernes, painted by Artemisia Gentileschi in Rome (ca. 1612 -1613 CE).
The painting of Judith Beheading Holofernes was based on the biblical story in which Judith and her maidservant kill an Assyrian General to save her hometown. Artemisia Gentileschi used herself as the model as a cathartic depiction of her killing the man who raped her. The painting embodies the main themes of the Baroque period with intense drama in the narrative and dark imagery. She also utilized tenebrism to highlight the figures with heavy modeling and naturalism. -
The Martyrdom of Saint Philip by José de Ribera in Italy (ca. 1639 CE).
The Martyrdom of Saint Philip depicts the physical torment of religious persecution. The anguish could be interpreted as a way of connecting the viewer to Catholicism. The Counter Reformation from the Roman Catholic Church utilized dramatic narratives that evoke emotion. The public was likely empathetic to pain, due to the violence around them. The painting serves as a vanitas in that if a divine figure can suffer, you can suffer as well. -
The Taj Mahal made by Shah Jahan during the Mughal Period in India (ca. 1632 - 1653 CE).
The Taj Mahal is an architectural symbol of love from Shah Jahan to honor his wife who died during childbirth. It is an all white marble structure which represents purity. It is located on the bank of the Yamuna River which was good for trade and visibility. The gardens along the entrance are full of waterways and fountains. The main structure has a domed roof and four minarets which leads to structural equilibrium. Its interior has eight halls which symbolize the eight levels of paradise. -
The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa made by Gian Lorenzo Bernini in Italy (ca. 1647 - 1652 CE)
The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa is an example of the multimedia style that arose during the Baroque period. The main piece is a narrative sculpture of Saint Teresa as she experiences the light of god. There are also rays of gold behind the sculpture and a window to let in natural light and to further symbolize god’s light. It captures the moment of catharsis that she experiences when pierced by the angel. Portraying the intense joy in this provocative way would have influenced and inspired viewers.
