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In Europe, the earliest example of enumerated rights is the Magna Carta. Signed by King John I of England, and drafted by Stephen Langton, the Magna Carta defined the relationship between a monarch and his subordinates and set the stage for future constitutions and declarations of rights. -
Of the many conflicts between France and England, the 100 Years War is the longest. The conflict began through bickering over the French throne, perpetuated by the French House of Valois and English House of Plantagenet. The war never formally ended but died out due to its excessive length. The 100 Years War is one of many examples of seemingly fruitless and pointless European conflicts, that would have economic implications well into the years following its conclusion. -
The deadliest pandemic in human history, the Black Plague ravaged the European population and plunged the continent into chaos. The lack of medical technology meant that there was little to combat the spread, and even more so led to hysteria. Historians suggest that the normalization of death led to an acceptance of violence in European society, and may have caused an increase in brutality. -
The Catholic Church, upon electing Pope Urban VI to the throne, experienced a split. The cardinals did not approve of Urban VI, so they rallied behind Pope Clement VII. After a confusing period of uncertainty as to who the real Pope is, Marcus V was elected in 1417. Overall, the Great Schism signifies the strength of the Catholic church, as the intensity of the struggle of power suggests that groups wanted to control the church to have further influence over society at large. -
The wealthiest art benefactors of the Italian Renaissance established their famous bank in order to organize their funds and begin to grow in power. After a slow start, the Medici bank's funds enabled the Renaissance to grow to its height through financial contributions to numerous artists. -
Arguably the most important invention of the 15th century, the printing press enabled mass distribution of information and literature. It goes without saying that this allowed ideas to spread much quicker than ever before, and promoted academia to become a normality. -
da'Vinci, renowned painter, inventor, engineer, and medicinal experimenter, was far ahead of his time. His journals contained sketches of various machines that would later be adopted in the modern age, to some extent. da'Vinci embodied the spirit of the Renaissance: progress in academia, the arts, and medicine. -
Mehmed II, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, put the nail in the Byzantine Empire's coffin by occupying Constantinople. By acquiring the city, the Ottomans were able to spread Islam geographically further than ever before. By placing the capital in Constantinople, Mehmed II created one of the first multi-cultural states and set the stage for tolerance of identity in future years. -
After a long struggle between Castille and Aragon, Spain is finally brought together as one through Isabella and Ferdinand of the two kingdoms respectively. Under their rule, Spain began the Inquisition, grew in size, and began a trend of exploration in the New World. -
In order to ensure Christian religious homogony, the Spanish crown created the Spanish Inquisition. The Inquisition violently suppressed any non-Christians who were unwilling to convert, and is one of many examples of state-imposed religious intolerance. -
Columbus, a Portuguese navigator, convinced Isabella and Ferdinand of Spain to finance a trans-Atlantic voyage in hopes of finding a more accessible route to the Indies. Of course, Columbus instead landed in the Americas, and began a long history of colonization and imperial conquest. -
Ivan the Great took the kingdom of Moscovy and transformed it into the Russian empire. His death marked the beginning of a dark time in Russian history, in which oppressive autocracies imposed a feudal societal structure and ruled with an iron fist. -
Famed sculpter and painter Michaelangelo was commissioned by the papacy to create the Sistine Chapel, full of complex murals and frescos. The chapel serves as a testament to the connection between religion and the arts, and a reminder as secularization began to sweep the continent. -
Fed up with corruption in the Catholic church in the form of indulgences, Martin Luther drafts and publishes 95 Theses to promote a more fair and just religious institution. The spread of the Theses would spark the fire that is the Protestant Revolution, and the weakening of the influence of the Catholic church. -
After Luther and his ideology's popularity soars, the Holy Roman Empire and Papacy summoned him to the Diet of Worms on charges of heresy. Luther would not back down from his beliefs or recant, which resulted in his exile. Luther's steadfast moral foundations only invigorated the Protestant Revolution further. -
While Rome was a part of the Papal states, a mutiny of Protestant Holy Roman Empire soldiers began and the city started to be looted. This continues the trend of Rome being the hub of classicism, and a representation of traditional beliefs. -
Italian political philosopher Machiavelli publishes his most famous work on the obligations and duties of a ruler of government. In The Prince, he advocates for "the end justifying the means" and "virtuous appearance," beliefs that would be taken to heart by future monarchs and rulers to come. -
The first Supremacy Act passed by Henry VIII created the Church of England and made himself the head. This was England's de facto split from Catholicism, and continued the institutional changes beginning to benefit the rapidly increasing Protestant population. -
Ignatius of Loyola founds the Jesuits to trailblaze a religious organization of devout Catholics focused on education, charity, and modernization of the Catholic faith. The Jesuits offered a more Progressive interpretation of Catholicism, and began to slowly cleanse the reputation of corruption. -
Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus publishes the first astronomical work advocating for heliocentrism, a revolutionary thought at the time. His initial theory was the first of its kind and laid the ground for future astronomers to build upon it. This was also one of the defining events in the Scientific Revolution, which was soon to be well underway. -
Intent on bringing reform to the Catholic church, the Council of Trent addressed and clarified the issues that concerned the Protestants. All in all, the Council of Trent rid ambiguity from many Catholic beliefs and continued to fight against the spread of Protestantism. -
The Peace of Augsburg, signed by Charles V of the HRE, granted German princes the right to select their own state religion for their region. The treaty was one of many instances of institutional concessions made by heads of state towards religious tolerance, a trend that would only continue. -
A quintessential Catholic v. Protestant conflict, the success of the English signified the growing strength of the Protestant movement. The battle was one of the first naval fights using heavy guns exclusively, a testament to the advancement of military technology. -
Issued by Henry IV of France, the Edict of Nantes gave religious freedoms to Calvinist French Protestants, otherwise known as Huguenots. France was almost entirely Catholic, and the edict outlawed the oppression against Huguenots that was so popular. -
The largest international trading company of its time, the Dutch East India Company was one of the most influential social and economic institutions of the 17th Century. It facilitated commerce between Asia, Europe, and later the New World, however, it also promoted imperialist behavior amongst European nations that would place many developing nations into their control. -
Within the Holy Roman Empire, conflict between Protestants and Catholics began again, resulting in one of the longest and most brutal conflicts in human history. The war changed European geography immensely and was one of the most dangerous times in European history for the average citizen. -
The tensions between the monarchy and parliament of England finally boil over when Charles I raises an army. This is one of the first instances of an internal struggle between an autocracy and democratic force, and would begin to be a normality in Europe and abroad. -
After being put on house arrest for his promotion of heliocentrism, Galileo dies. Widely considered the father of astronomy, Galileo's discoveries and inventions gave future astronomers the toolkit to be successful and expand the field. -
"The Sun King" took autocracy in France to a new level. Not only did he move the capital and build a ridiculously lavish estate, but his policies grew French industry and helped solve the deficit spending incurred by seemingly endless wars. Additionally, he placated the nobility, allowing him to take the reigns of power in France with ease. -
The Treaty of Westphalia brought the 30 Years War to a close, and reinstated what the Peace of Augsburg did: states have the sovereignty to choose their own religion. The Treaty is yet another step into the secularization of society to come in the 18th Century. -
Oliver Cromwell, as commander-in-chief of the new English government, imposed his power over the former king to signify the end of autocracy. Of course, this did not end well, but the execution would have lasting social impacts on implications of monarchal rule and rights of citizens. -
Arguably one of the most important texts in math and science from one of the most important figures in math and science, the Principia Mathematica introduced numerous revolutionary theories from physics, chemistry, to calculus, and proved that the Scientific Revolution was here to stay. -
After despotic decisions from Catholic King James II and suspicious relations with France, members of the English Parliament encouraged William of Orange to invade and impose Mary as the new ruler. After the process was said and done, government reform began to take shape. -
Following the Glorious Revolution, the Bill of Rights established freedoms for the English public and structured the government as a joint monarchy between the crown and Parliament. This document was the primary stepping stone in the path to England's transformation into a constitutional monarchy. -
With the economy struggling, Parliament decided to try and centralize the government's finances to maintain aggression against France. It stabilized the British currency and economy as a whole, and allowed for further industrial growth soon to come in the budding Industrial Revolution. -
After a period of turmoil fighting for power over Spain various European countries, the Peace of Utrecht limited the influence of the French crown and expanded the territory of the British empire. The Spanish and French monarchies were prohibited from joining, weakening the French Empire. -
Considered the first global conflict in history, the Seven Years War was between France and Great Britain but in the American territories. The British ultimately prevailed, but the financial toll on both belligerents weakened them, setting up the success of the revolutions to come. -
Famed French Enlightenment Philosophe Rousseau expands on John Locke's Social Contract theory. In the novel, Rousseau describes the most effective ways to develop a connection between a government and its constituents, and how the government has an obligation to protect the rights of its citizens. Many future constitutions would take inspiration from some of the ideas in The Social Contract. -
After a long period of toil and hardship, Peter the Great of Russia finally completed his new city. Now, Russia had access to the sea, thus giving the opportunity to expand trade and increase economic growth. -
At the time of its publication, the Encyclopedia Britannica was the largest codex of general knowledge on Earth. Written by Polymath Diderot, the Encyclopedia organized a large amount of information into one text, thereby making it accessible to more Europeans than ever before. -
The Wealth of Nations is a study into what exactly has allowed nations to generate their wealth, and is a fundamental pillar in classical economics and classical liberal political philosophy. America's founding fathers looked towards the book for inspiration during the creation of the American government and economic development. -
After being shut out at the Estates General, and after being barred from assembly, the Third Estate gathered in a tennis court for an impromptu promise to reconvene and create a solution to the monarchy's despotism. This event started turning the gears to the French Revolution. -
The first violent uprising in the French revolution, the Bastille was stormed by Parisian revolutionaries, resulting in the death of guards and the release of prisoners. Bastille Day was the beginning of many violent conflicts which took place during France's battle for power. -
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen acted as a comprehensive list of natural rights entitled to every human. Presented by the National Assembly, it seemed to be an excellent document to base the morals of a nation upon. Unfortunately, the DoRoMaC would only serve as a reminder of what could have been. -
Frustrated with the crown's neglectful behavior in regards to the soaring prices and scarcity of bread, women took up arms and stormed all the way to Versailles in protest. The King's return to the French assembly was requested and reluctantly fulfilled, signifying a shift in power, at least symbolically, to the people and Third Estate. -
Unhappy with the continued unfair treatment of women, despite the recent leaps and bounds in human rights, Mary Wollstonecraft weaponizes Enlightenment philosophy to prove the validity of women's rights. She uses the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen to support her arguments, however, her effort -
Estranged lawyer and head of the Jacobin club finally repents for his orchestration of the Reign of Terror. His death marks the end of fear and the amplification of uncertainty during the French Revolution. -
Fresh out of a miltiary campaign in Egypt, Napoleon seized an opportunity to get in power at the end of the French Revolution. Slowly but surely, he begins to take absolute control and lead France towards becoming a superpower once again. -
After conquering much of Europe, Napoleon finally meets his match in Belgium with the Duke of Wellington. This begins the decline of the Napoleonic Era, as France no longer had the military power or financial stability to be a dominant force, nor a strong leader at its helm. -
While in exile, Napoleon passes away, officially bringing the Napoleonic Era to a close. The world does not see a military force of the magnitude of Napoleon for many years following his death.