Ancient Rome

Romulus founds city of Rome

753 BCE

It was Romulus who supposedly built the walls around Palatine Hill, founding Rome and becoming its first king.

Early Development of Rome

Period: 753 BCE to 146 BCE

Outcome 1
Includes rule of the kings, the oligarchy, the Revolution of 509 BCE, patricians and plebeians, the Conflict of the Orders, Territorial expansion of Rome and the conflict between Rome and Carthage.

Rule of the Kings

Period: 753 BCE to 509 BCE

There were certainly kings in the early periods but it is difficult to separate facts from legends. The last three kings probably existed and at least two of them were Etruscan

Numa Poompilius becomes king

715 BCE

Peaceful priest king that ruled 43 years. Respect for gods and law. Introduced Rome’s religious institutions and priesthoods. Brought the Vestal Virgins to Rome.

Tullus Hostilius becomes king

673 BCE

Warrior king that ruled for 32 years. Supposably defeated the city of Alba Longa. Doubled the population of Rome by bringing the defeated population of Alba Longa to the city.

Ancus Marcius becomes king

642 BCE

Strong in peace and war, credited for expanding territory. Built a prison over the Forum. The existence of sufficient crime and criminals suggested Rome’s population had grown. Built a bridge over the Tiber (facilitated and protected the salt route)

Lucius Tarquinius Priscus becomes king

616 BCE

Tarquin the Elder, first Etruscan king, expanded power and buildings. Built stadium in Rome for racing and games. May have developed the Circus Maximus

Servius Tullius becomes king

578 BCE

Credited with introducing a number of military and political reforms.Divided Rome into five classes depending on wealth. Created the Comitia Centuriata and its unit voting system

Tarquinius Superbus becomes king

534 BCE

Last of the Roman Kings. Represented as a oppressive tyrant, credited for continuing improvements. Aggressive foreign policy led to reorganising of an alliance of Latin cities under Roman leadership.

The Revolution of 509 BCE

509 BCE

Tarquinius’ son Sextus raped the virtuous Lucretia. Lucretia compelled her husband, Collatinus, and his friend, Brutus, to swear to avenge her and then she committed suicide. Brutus roused the Roman population, who had had enough of Tarquinius and they drove the king and his sons into exile among the Etruscans. Tarquin was expelled from Rome by Lucius Junius Brutus with the support of the Roman people.

Conflict of the Orders

Period: 500 BCE to 287 BCE

The first two centuries of the Republic was dominated by the tension between the patrician elite and the plebeian majority.

Battle of Lake Regillus

499 BCE

Tarquinius Superbus, the last of the Roman kings, making his final attempt to reclaim his throne supported by the Latins. Rome showed that it had sufficient military power by itself to stand up against the combined forced of the Latin League.

Territorial Expansion of Rome

Period: 496 BCE to 275 BCE

Includes the Battle of Lake Regillus, the conquest of Veii, the Sack of Rome by the Gauls, the Second Samnite War and the war with Pyrrhus.

The first secession

495 BCE

The first Secession occured when Rome faced attacks by the Volsci. A large number of plebeians went on strike. The patricians reluctantly agreed to a number of compromises. These compromises led towards new plebeian institutions that included the offices of the plebeian tribune, plebeians aedile and the Plebian Council.

Cassian Treaty

493 BCE

Rome was able to negotiate the Cassian Treaty between itself and the thirty Latin cities. As well as establishing peace, the treaty stated that Rome and the Latin League would be seen as two independent but equal political powers.

The twelve tables

449 BCE

Laws were produced were accepted by vote in the Centuriate Assembly and went into effect as the Twelve Tables. These laws mostly codified existing social and legal practices but were important because they made it more difficult for patricians to make up laws to suit themselves.

Conquest of Veii

406 BCE

Rome besieged Veii. The siege supposedly lasted ten years until Veii was captured in 396 BCE

Sack of Rome by the Gauls

390 BCE

That Sack of Rome destroyed the Roman achieves on the regal period and the first century of the Republic. The destruction of these primary sources are the reason historians know little before this period. To prevent a future attack, the city was rebuilt and fortified with the Servian Wall. This wall was four meters thick, eight meters high and surrounded the entire city.

Licinian-Sextian Laws

367 BCE

A series of laws proposed by by the tribunes of the plebs. The permitted plebeians to run for consulship. They also lomited the intest rates of loans and restiction of private owenership of land.

First Samnite War

343 BCE

343-341 BCE. The Capuans asked Rome for help and Rome tuned against the Samnites, their former allies. Roman prevented the Samnites from becoming a potential rival and gained more land in Campania.

Samnite Wars

Period: 343 BCE to 290 BCE

Rome was also engaged in long-running war with Samnite hill tribes, which took the form the three Samnite Wars. Rome won the Samnite Wars which lead to three major consequences: Rome was able to secure control of the centre of Italy. Construct a network of roads. Adopt the flexible and superior military techniques the Samnites used (manipular legion and small companies).

Second Samite War

326 BCE

326-304 BCE. Rome set up a colony at Fregellae in territory that the Samnites considered theirs. 321 BCE the Samnites trapped a Roman army in a mountain valley called the Caudine Forks. The Romans were forced to surrender. Rome adapted to the manipular legion. Roman wins the war. Samnium remained independent but was no longer the equal of Rome in power or territory.

Alexander the Great dies

323 BCE

Alexander the Great had conquered huge amount of territory for Macedonia and exported Hellenistic culture in the eastern Mediterranean. 232 BCE Alexander dies at 23 and his empire was divided amongst his generals who began fighting each other.

Third Samnite War

298 BCE

298-290 BCE. Rome faced a coalition of Samnite, Etruscan, Umbrian and Gallic forces. 295 BCE battle of Sentinum was a turning point in this war, where the Romans won a victory that broke the tribal coalition. Roman territory had expanded significantly, and Rome was the strongest power in Italy.

The Mamertine Incident

288 BCE

288-264. The Mamertines (Sons of Mars) were a band of mercenaries formerly in the employment of Agathocles of Sicily. The Mamertines feared that Carthage would control Messana so they called Rome for help.

War with Pyrrhus

280 BCE

280-275 BCE. When Rome went south to assist their allies, the Tarentum attacked the Roman ships. Romans then sent their army south. The Greek king Pyrrhus of Epirus came to Italy to assist the Tarentum, with 25 000 soldiers and 20 war elephants to start the Pyrrhic War. Pyrrhus returned to Italy after suffering defeat from the Carthaginian navy and the Roman Army. Pyrrhus goes back eat to attempt to conquest of Macedonia.

War in Sicily

264 BCE

264-261 BCE. The Romans persuaded Syracuse to become an ally. The two Roman consuls arrived in Sicily and recaptured some of the cities taken by Carthage. Rome sent their armies and captured Agrigentum after a five month siege.

Punic Wars

Period: 264 BCE to 146 BCE

Also known as Carthaginian Wars, a series of three wars between the Roman Republic and the Carthaginian empire, resulting in the destruction of Carthage, the enslavement of its population, and Roman hegemony over the western Mediterranean.

First Punic War

Period: 264 BCE to 241 BCE

The first of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage, The war was fought primarily on the Mediterranean island of Sicily and its surrounding waters, and also in North Africa. After immense losses on both sides, the Carthaginians were defeated.

Naval warfare

260 BCE

260–256 BCE. Romans had virtually no ships and no skill in naval warfare, while the Carthaginians were very experienced. The Romans fought the Carthaginian fleet off the northern coast of Sicily near the town of Mylae. Rome wins its first navel victory in Roman history.

African Campaign

256 BCE

The invasion begins very well with a naval victory at Cape Ecomus in 256 BCE. They plundering the countryside around Carthage. Carthage hires Spartan mercenaries. Rome is forced to withdraw after heavy losses.

War in Sicily

254 BCE

254-241 BCE. Carthage were confined to their strongholds and Romans lost a series of navel battles, causing the war to become a stalemate. The Roman fleet blockaded Drepana and Lilybaeum in Sicily, cutting off Cathagiinian reinforcements and supplies. 241 BCE Carthage made one last attempt to sent ships to Sicily but the new Roman fleet defeated them at the Aegates Islands.

Carthage conquest of Spain

237 BCE

Hamilcar Barca was given a command to re-establish Carthaginian command over Spain and to conquer new territory in 237 BCE. The campaign was very successful, using a combination of ruthlessness and lenience to establish the their family order in Spain.

Ebro River Treaty

226 BCE

The Romans were anxious of Carthage’s growing power and negotiated The Ebro River Treaty in 226 BCE. This stated that the Carthaginians would not cross the River Ebro in the north of Spain.

Siege of Saguntum

219 BCE

Hannibal announces that the Romans had unjustly interfered in the internal politics. In 219 BCE Hannibal attacks and captures Saguntum after an 8-month siege. The Carthaginian Senate refused to hand Hannibal over and Rome declared war, starting the Second Punic War or the “Hannibalic War.’

War in Italy

218 BCE

218-209 BCE. The Romans assumed there would be two main theatres of was. In 218 BCE they sent out each of the two consuls with an army. Publius Cornelius Scipio went to Spain. Tiberius Sempronius Longus went to Sicily

Hannibal crossing the Alps

218 BCE

Hannibal left New Carthage in June 218 BCE.The army that arrived in Italy was significantly reduced, with about 20,000 infantry and 6000 carvery surviving. The Gauls joined Hannibal’s army.The two consuls raced back to Italy to meet Hannibal.

Second Punic War

Period: 218 BCE to 202 BCE

The second of three wars fought between Carthage and Rome, There were three main military theatres during the war: Italy, where Hannibal defeated the Roman legions repeatedly, Iberia, where Hasdrubal defended the Carthaginian colonial cities; and Africa, where Rome finally won the war.

Fabian strategy

217 BCE

Quintus Fabius Maximus was appointed dictator. Fabius’ strategy was to avoid major battles with Hannibal while continually harassing the Carthaginians with skirmishes, earning him the nickname the ‘Delayer.’

Battle of Cannae

216 BCE

Consul Varro raised the largest army Rome has ever seen to destroy Hannibal. 80,000 against less than 50,000. Hannibal lost 5700 men and wiped out the largest army the Romans had ever sent onto battlefield.

Macedonian Wars

Period: 214 BCE to 148 BCE

Rome became involved in a series of campaigns in Macedonia, Greece and Asia which eventually gave it control of the eastern Mediterranean. As a result, Rome ended up with more states bound to it through alliances and treaties, including Greek city-states.

Battle of the Metaurus River

207 BCE

Hasdrubal and most of his troops were killed at the Battle of the Metaurus River 207 BCE.Hannibal retreated south to Bruttium and remained there for four years, grieving and believing that the Italian campaign was lost.

The Battle of Zama

202 BCE

The two forces, each with numbers roughly equal to the other, approached Zama, near Carthage. When the battle was over, 20,000 of Hannibal’s men lay dead and almost as many were taken prisoner. Hannibal survived and retreated to Carthage and urged the Senate to accept peace terms

Greek "independence" from Rome

197 BCE

After the Second Macedonian War, the Roman general Flaminius announced that the Greek city-states were free to conduct their own affairs. They adapt a policy of non-interference.

Carthage attacks Numidia

151 BCE

In the second half of the second century BCE, Carthage often found itself in disputes with the neighbouring kingdom of Numida, which was allied with Rome. In 151 BCE, Carthage left the peace treaty had come to an end and attacked Numidia. Rome considered this an act of war. Carthage lost a minor war against Numidia, and when Rome declared war, they surrendered immediately.

Fourth Macedonian War

149 BCE

149 BCE a fourth Macedonian War broke out. This was supported by Greeks who revolted against Roman influence. The Roman armies defeated Macedonia and the Greek cities.

Third Punic War

Period: 149 BCE to 146 BCE

The third and last of the Punic Wars fought between Carthage and Rome. The war was fought entirely within Carthaginian territory, Carthage sent an army against Masinissa. Carthage was then destroyed by Rome.

The Siege of Carthage

147 BCE

147-148 BCE. The Carthaginians prepared for a siege and for two years they bravely defended their city while ineffective Roman commanded failed breach their defences. 50000 Carthaginian survivors were sold as salves, the city was completely destroyed.

Greece became a Roman protectorate.

146 BCE

By 146 BCE the Romans had added the provinces of Africa (Carthaginian territory) and Macedon and a dependent Greece to their empire.

Tiberius Gracchus Trubune

133 BCE

Tiberius Gracchus won election as one of the ten Tribunes of the Plebs, despite his patrician pedigree.

The death of Tiberius Gracchus

133 BCE

On election day,, Tiberius appeared in the Forum with armed guards. Once voting began, the senators marched into the Forum and violence quickly broke out. In the fighting, Tiberius was beaten to death, along with hundreds of his supporters.

Fall of the Republic

Period: 133 BCE to 23 BCE

Outcome 2
The interests and actions of individuals that led to the demise of the Republic. Includes Tiberius Gracchus, Gaius Gracchus, Gaius Marius, Cornelius Sulla, Pompey, Julius Caesar and Octavian/Augustus.

Gaius Gracchus becomes Tribune

123 BCE

Gaius Gracchus won election to the Plebeian Tribune. Gaius proposed a range of laws that not only aimed to change economics and politics, but also changed how the Roman law courts worked.

Death of Gaius Gracchus

121 BCE

Gaius attempted a third-year tribuneship but was unsuccessful. The senate gave the consul the Final Decree of the Senate (senatus consultum ultimum); which game Opimus the right to do anything he thought necessary to defend Rome. Opimius ordered direct military attack on Gaius and his supporters. Thousands of Gaius supporters were killed, but Gaius ordered a slave to kill him before his supporters could.

Jugurthine War

112 BCE

112–106 BCE. Civil war broke out in the kingdom of Numida. Rome had land neighboring Numida and sort to re-establish peace in the region.One of Marius commanders, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, managed to persuade the kingdom to betray Jugurtha and hand him to Marius.

Marian Reforms

107 BCE

Marius decided the he would no longer require soldiers to own land in order to join his new army. He asked for volunteers to become his solders, regardless of their position.

Giaus Marius

107 BCE

Marius was elected consul. He was also granted honours to take over Metellus’ command in Africa against Numidian prince Jugurtha. He did this as a plebian and new man.

Cimbrian War

101 BCE

113–101 BCE.The Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and Teutones begun to move towards Italy. Several Roman armies failed to stop them. The Germanic tribes of the Cimbri and Teutones begun to move towards Italy. Several Roman armies failed to stop them.

The Social War

91 BCE

91–87 BCE. Tension that has been building between the city of Rome and its allied cities in Italy exploded into all-out war. Marius was called to Rome once again and given an army. Rome gradually overcame the rebels and captured their capital city.

Sulla becomes consul

88 BCE

In order to boost his reputation, Sulla continuously made it known that it was he was responsible for victory in the Jugurthine War. This made him a political enemy of Marius. Sulla successfully won the election as a consul through traditional political means.

Sulla's first march on Rome

88 BCE

Gaius Marius wanted the Mithridatic campaign that had been given to Sulla. Using the Plebian Council and acts of violence, Marius was reassigned to lead the war against Mithridates in place of Sulla.Sulla marched to Rome, taking Marius and the Senate completely by surprise and offering no real resistance.

Sulla's second march on Rome

83 BCE

While Sulla was away from Rome, Marius returned from Africa and won his seventh consulship. Sulla declared peace with Mithridates and sailed back to Italy. Sulla’s army once again marched on Rome but the Senate was more prepared and formed armies to defend the city. Sulla’s veteran soldiers quickly defeated the Roman soldiers.

Sulla becomes dictator

82 BCE

With the previous consuls dead, he suggested that the senate should appoint an interrex, a temporary ruler that could appoint Sulla dictator. The Senate gave Sulla the political position of dictator for as long as he deemed necessary. Rather being limited to a traditional six months, Sulla was given permission to remain as dictator for as long as he deemed it necessary.

Sulla's proscriptions

82 BCE

Sulla introduced a brutal new strategy known was the proscriptions. Proscriptions were lists of people’s names that were displayed in public and could be legally be hunted and killed for reward.

Lepidan Revolt

77 BCE

Marcus Aemilius Lepidus was elected consul at a time where the Senate was opposed to any major changes to Sulla’s laws. Lepidus was tasked with crushing a local rebellion in Etruria, but instead repeated Sulla’s tactic and raised his own army and marched them on Rome. Pompey led an exhibition to Spain where he suffered two consecutive defeats. 73 BCE, overrun the rebels and Pompey defeated them.

Spartacus revolt

73 BCE

73–71 BCE. slave named Spartacus led 70 of his fellow gladiators to escape their masters and began an armed rebellion, soon obtaining a slave army of 70,000 men. Wealthy Roman Marcus Lininius Crassus was called to raise an army to stop the uprising. He killed Spartacus and crucified members of the revolt on the main road back to Rome. Despite Crassus winning more battles, Pompey claimed he was ultimately responsible for putting an end to the slave uprising.

Pomey elected consul

70 BCE

Pompey was elected consul for the first time. This was a rare honour as her was technically too young and had not followed cursus honorum. The other consul elected was Crassus

Lex Gabinia

67 BCE

A bill called the Lex Gabinia was put forward by the tribune. This proposed that Pompey was given extraordinary political and military power to find a workable solution against the pirate threat. It gave Pompey a three-year command over the entire Mediterranean Sea.

Lex Manilia

66 BCE

73–63 BCE. Lex Manilia was passed by a tribune giving Pompey the authority to march an army east to deal with Rome’s long-standing enemy, Mithridates VI of Pontus, which had continued to grow in power after the arranged peace with Sulla in 85 BCE.

The Catiline Conspiracy

63 BCE

An attempted coup by Lucius Sergius Catilina to overthrow the Roman consuls and forcibly assume control of the state in their stead. Antonius defeated Catiline in battle, putting an end to the plot.

The First Triumvirate formed

60 BCE

Juilus Caesar, Pompey and Crassus formed a secret pact known by modern historians as the First Triumvirate (three men). This act was considered highly illegal as the system wanted to avoid control by autocrats.

Caesar’s first Consulship

59 BCE

59 BCE, Caesar used his new influence to win his consulship along with a man named Bibulus. Caesar attempted to fulfil his promises and started to seek the land that Pompey needed for his veteran soldiers. Caesar initially approached the Senate with the land bill but was rejected. He then took his request directly to the Plebeian Counsel and never consulted the Senate again.

Gallic Wars

58 BCE

58–50 BCE. Caesar took a 5-year military command in the Gaul, fighting local tribes and training loyal soldiers to obey his every command. The Gaul tribes had defeated Rome in the fourth century BCE, and the Romans feared that they would start working together. Caesar exploited this fear, making it known that he could defeat the Gaul.

Caesar's civil war

49 BCE

Caesar marched his forces across the Rubicon River and began marching towards Rome and the Civil War had begun. Caesar failed to capture Pompey and bring an end to the war. He did manage to capture all of Italy in sixty-six days.

Caesar's civil war

Period: 49 BCE to 45 BCE

A series of political and military confrontations between Gaius Julius Caesar and Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus.The war was a four-year-long politico-military struggle, fought in Italy, Illyria, Greece, Egypt, Africa, and Hispania.Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was assassinated on arrival.Caesar was made dictator perpetuo.

Pompey Assassinated

48 BCE

Pompey was stabbed to death by the pharaoh’s advisors who were hoping to impress Caesar. Caesar expressed sadness that such a great man died in such a brutal manner.

Battle of Battle of Pharsalus

48 BCE

Pompey engaged Caesar in the Battle of Pharsalus. Pompey tried to rely on his larger carvery, but Caesar reorganised his infantry to support his cavalry division. Caesar’s troops were able to hold on long enough to surround Pompey's legions. Despite having the larger army, Pompey looses this significant battle.

Caesar dictator for life

44 BCE

Caesar was offered the position of dictator forever (dictator in perpetuum).

Assassination of Julius Caesar

44 BCE

The conspirators decided their best chance was to carry about the assassination 3 days before he leaves for his campaign. The senators approached Caesar, acting as if they were greeting him, but instead they drew out hidden daggers and stabbed Caesar over twenty times.

Battle of Mutina

43 BCE

The armies of Mark Antony and Octavian fought in the Battle of Mutina. Mark Antony was defeated, both consuls were killed, leaving Octavian in command of the armies.

Octavian first consulship

43 BCE

Octavian demanded consulship. The senate and Cicero rejected his demands. He then marched on Rome with his legion, seizing the treasury to pay his troops and made arrangements for the consular elections. Octavian returned to Rome with his Army, and the Senate was in a state of panic and allowed Octavian to have the vacant consul position.

The Second Triumvirate Forms

43 BCE

The Second Triumvirate was legally enshrined by the lex Titia of 43 BCE. The assembly appointed them triumviri ‘Three men with consular power to confirm the Republic’ for 5 years. They had consular power without office.

Perusine War

40 BCE

Octavian decided to divorce his wife Claudia. Claudia was the daughter Fulvia (Antony’s wife) from a previous marriage. This broke the alliance between Mark Antony and Octavian. Fulvia raised and army with the help of Antony’s brother Lucius Antonius.

Donations of Alexandria

34 BCE

Mark Antony and Cleopatra celebrated their triumph over Armenia. They dressed as the gods Dionysus and Isis. Antony announced to the world the legitimacy of Caesar and Cleopatra's 13-year-old son, Ptolemy XV (Caesarion) was described as ‘King of Kings.’, seen as a direct challenge to Octavian.

War with Egypt

Period: 32 BCE to 30 BCE

The last civil war of the Roman Republic, fought between Mark Antony (assisted by Cleopatra and Ptolemaic Egypt) and Octavian. Following the end of the war, Octavian brought peace to the Roman state that had been plagued by a century of civil wars. Octavian became the most powerful man in the Roman world and the Senate bestowed upon him the honorific of Augustus

The Battle of Actium

31 BCE

Mark Antony could match Octavian and Agrippa’s land forces, Octavian had advantage by sea. Mark Antony lost about 5000 men and 300 ships. He escaped with the treasury but his legions at Actium ignored their commander and defected to Octavian.

Death of Antony and Cleopatra

30 BCE

Octavian invaded Egypt, bolstered by Antony’s former allies in Syria and Judaea. Cleopatra fled to her mausoleum to hide from the Roman invaders. Mark Antony, believing that Cleopatra was dead, stabbed himself with his sword. Cleopatra also died from suicide via poisoning.

Settlement of 27 BCE

27 BCE

Octavian accounted that he was renouncing all his powers and handling his provinces over to the Senate and the people of Rome.The senate however begged him to stay, and a compromise was made. These new powers gave Octavian control of the Roman Army. The military was separated from politics. Military leaders were no longer responsible for soldiers’ pensions and land grants. The Roman army was nationalised.

Settlement of 23 BCE

23 BCE

Augustus renegotiated his position. He resigned his consulship but retained his consular imperium, leading to a second compromise between Augustus and the senate known as the Second Settlement.