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3200 BCE
Cuneiform Tablets
Cuneiform was developed by the Sumerians but spread across Mesopotamia. Scribes used reeds made into styluses to impress on gathered wet clay surfaces, creating the earliest books. The clay was reusable, but some tablets were fired and stored for future reference. -
3000 BCE
Papyrus
Papyrus paper was manufactured in Egypt, along the Nile River. It was relatively easy to make. Thin strips of papyrus were laid side-by-side (either vertically or horizontally) to create a layer, and a second criss-crossed layer was created perpendicularly on top of the first. They were typically stored rolled. Ink and reed brushes were used to write on the papyrus paper. -
1500 BCE
Parchment & Vellum
Egyptian export of papyrus ceased, which created the need for a new writing material. Parchment and vellum are both items made from animal skin – specifically the flesh side. Vellum is most often made from young animals (particularly calf) only, however. They are both used as writing surfaces. Later on, they were used as the inside pages of manuscripts. Good parchment is soft, thin and folds easily. Correctly stored, it can last for hundreds, even thousands of years. -
1250 BCE
Wax Tablets
Wax tablets were contemporary to cuneiform tablets and papyrus paper. They were in regular use in ancient Greece and Rome.The surface was made of wax set into wooden boards, and the writing tools were pointed styluses to help scratch letters into the wax. Children used them to learn and practice their letters, take notes in school, and do their homework. Wax tablets were also used by women to keep track of the household. They were used well into the 16th century. -
105
Hand Papermaking
Paper as we know it today was invented in China by a Chinese court official named Ts'ai Lun. China was very secretive about their papermaking techniques, so it took around 300 years for the process to make its way to the Middle East. It took another 500 years to reach Europe. Chinese paper was most likely made from materials like silk, hemp, rags, and tree bark mashed into pulp. Then, the mixture would be pressed and dried flat. -
300
Codex
The codex format became more popular than the roll format in around 300 CE. Codices could hold more information since text could be written on both sides. It made it easier to find information in text than one could in rolls. As Christianity spread, so did this format of folded parchment (and later paper). Codex is typically used to mean manuscripts even though modern books are codices in format. -
476
Manuscripts
More often describes works written by hand by scribes. They were first created in scroll formats but transferred to the codex form in the Middle Ages. Medieval manuscripts were works of art that included vibrantly illuminating text and imagery with gold and colored ink. They were and are deemed precious. -
501
Bookbinding
European bookbinding began in the 6th century. In the Middle Ages, bound books consisted of the text block, the boards, and the covering material. Sometimes sewn text blocks would not fbe bound within covers, but covers helped in protecting text. There are many binding styles and techniques. Manuscript covers were often made from wood and pasteboards. Leather became a popular covering material that would be adorned with gold tooling. Modern bookbinding advanced due to the printing press. -
600
Woodblock & Copies
Paper gave way for woodblock printing. Text and imagery could be cut into woodblocks to create relief prints. Although wood carving is a tedious process, once it was done it could be copied many times! This type of printing spread to Korea and Japan. Once printing became widespread, a more sophisticated paper industry developed with many different specialized papers created for different purposes. -
1041
Moveable Type
First came moveable ceramic type by Bi Sheng in China. Then came moveable wood type followed by moveable metal type invented in 13th century Korea. By the mid-15th century, moveable metal type was popularized in Europe by Johannes Gutenberg. Gutenberg combined moveable type with the process of making wine using wooden presses to create a new technology that changed the production of the book. His common hand press allowed for faster printing. He printed an edition of the Bible in 1455. -
Modern Papermaking
In the mid-18th century, paper became industrialized as well with a shift to laid paper. In the 19th century, many new experiments and discoveries regarding paper took place. Materials such as wood pulp and straw were being used to create new types of paper. The quality (and therefore cost) of paper and books could be more controlled. This allowed publishers to create and sell work for cheaper. This also allowed for more book access to the general public. -
Industrialized Printing
Machine printing came in to play in the 1800s when Charles Stanhope made improvements to Gutenberg's design. Iron presses were more durable and they created sharper impressions. Richard M. Hoe created a cylinder (rotary) press that sped up the printing process, producing 8,000 sheets an hour in 2,000 revolutions. -
Return to Fine Press
A revival and return to fine press erupted when the quality of paper reduced due to industrialization. Artists started creating handmade books on handmade paper once again. Fine bindings are still being made by today's bookbinders! -
Digital Books
Electronic books has been around since the 1990s but was not widely accepted until the early 2000s. E-books are digital files that can be accessed on an array of handheld devices and on desktop via the internet. Interestingly enough, many of the popular ways to view e-books are on electronic tablets. These tablets (and phones) are a call to the past and can be used to create as well as access already created works.