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Japan's Isolation Policies (Eighteenth Century)
Japan effectively kept foreign merchants and missionaries at bay. Limited trade to Nagasaki, allowing only the Dutch.
Forbidden for Japanese to travel abroad. European threat played a role in propelling Japan towards modernization. -
Period: to
History between 1800 and 1914
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Dutch Expansion in the East Indies
In 1816, Dutch control in the East Indies was limited to Java.
Java War (1825–1830) marked resistance to Dutch rule.
Implementation of the exploitative Culture System, forcing peasants to grow crops for Dutch taxes. Dutch encouragement of Western education in the late 19th century triggered anti-colonial nationalism. -
The Introduction of Opium
Around 1820 Opium was introduced into China by the British. It was smuggled into China, where its use and sale were illegal. Huge profits led to rapid increases in sales, from 4,500 chests in 1810 to 10,000 in 1830 and 40,000 in 1838. At this point, China suffered a drain of silver, since it was importing more than it was exporting. To deal with it, Lin Zexu was dispatched to Guangzhou in 1839. He dealt harshly with Chinese who purchased opium and seized the opium stores of British merchants. -
Amistad Revolt
The Amistad revolt occurred in 1839 when African captives seized control of the ship, demanding freedom. Led by Cinqué, they faced trial in the U.S. for murder and piracy. Abolitionists, including former President John Quincy Adams, defended them, arguing for their right to resist illegal enslavement. The case led to a Supreme Court ruling in 1841, declaring their abduction unlawful and securing their freedom, emphasizing the global struggle against the transatlantic slave trade. -
The Ensuing Opium Wars
By 1839, British merchants wanted to create a market for their goods in China and get tea more cheaply by trading closer to its source. With the encouragement of their merchants in China, the British sent an expeditionary force from India with forty-two warships and forced the Chinese to negotiate. Dissatisfied with the resulting agreement, the British sent a second, larger force, which took even more coastal cities, including Shanghai. This Opium War was settled at gunpoint in 1842. -
The Taiping Rebellion
The Taiping Rebellion was initiated by Hong Xiuquan who had discovered he had a mission to wipe out evil in China. He soon gathered followers, whom he instructed to destroy idols and ancestral temples. By 1853 the Taiping rebels had moved north and established their capital at the major city of Nanjing. From this, they set about creating a society based on the equality of men and women. The religious teachings
of Hong Xiuquan, which began in 1851, were not suppressed until 1864. -
Expansion of British Territories in Asia (1852 onwards)
Steady expansion of British-controlled territories in Asia.
Annexation of Burma in 1852 and its administration as a province of India.
British base in Singapore followed by expansion into Malaya (Malaysia) in the 1870s and 1880s.
Economic development efforts in Burma (timber, rice) and Malaya (tin, rubber) with diverse populations from labor migration. -
The "Opening" of Japan
Commodore Matthew Perry forced Japan to open to trade.
Treaty signed under gunboat diplomacy, opening two ports.
Marked the end of Japan's isolationist policies. Led to increased Western influence and subsequent modernization efforts. -
Great Mutiny / Great Revolt
Armed resistance against British rule in 1857.
Sepoys' grievances included religious concerns, high taxes, and caste-related issues. Crushed by British forces, leading to tighter British control in India. Shift from company rule to direct British rule; British acted more as occupying power. -
French Conquest in Vietnam
King Minh Mang's opposition to Christianity led to conflicts with French missionaries. French seized Saigon in 1859, expanding to conquer Vietnam by 1885. Laos and Cambodia added, forming French Indochina in 1887.
Continued resistance by Vietnamese patriots; some looked to Japan as a model for anticolonial revolution. -
China's world standing reaches depths
In 1800 most Chinese had no reason to question the concept of China as a kingdom. A century later China’s world standing had sunk precipitously. Civil conflicts like the White Lotus Rebellion, Xinjiang wars, and Taiping Civil War broke out across China. Disaffection led to unrest among the educated classes and the poor. As a result of warfare in home regions, people migrated to safer cities in search of food and work. This created local tensions, ethnic alienation and conflict over resources. -
The Meiji Restoration
Reform-minded daimyo led a coup ousting the Tokugawa Shogunate. Return to direct rule by Emperor Meiji, ending over 600 years of shogunate. Initiated reforms to modernize Japan along Western lines. Abolished domains, dismantled the four-class legal system, and declared equality. -
Siam's Independence and Modernization
Siam (Thailand) maintained independence between British Burma and French Indochina. King Chulalongkorn modernized and centralized the state. Implemented reforms, outlawed slavery, and balanced imperialist pressures. Developed a modern centralizing state, adapting to Western ideas. -
Impact of The Great Famine
A severe famine affecting India from 1876 to 1878. Resulted in significant loss of life and widespread suffering. Exposed issues of economic exploitation and inadequate relief measures. Contributed to increased discontent and scrutiny of British rule in India. -
Formation of Indian National Congress
Educated Indian elite sought equality and self-government.
Founded in 1885, Indian National Congress called for more opportunities in the Indian Civil Service.
Demands for reallocation of the government budget from military to poverty alleviation. Advocated unity across religious and caste lines, though membership was primarily upper-caste Hindus. -
Scramble for Africa
European powers, motivated by economic interests and misled by promises of Christianity and civilization, partitioned Africa. The Berlin Conference (1884–1885) established rules for territorial claims, leading to European control over 90% of Africa by 1914, except for Ethiopia and Liberia. -
Adoption of Constitutional Government
Japan became the first non-Western country to adopt a constitutional government. Established the Diet, with an upper house of lords and a lower elected house. Emperor declared "sacred and inviolable," maintaining an authoritarian system. Cultural changes, influenced by Western ideas, accompanied political transformation. -
Brutal Atrocities in Congo (1890-1904)
George Washington Williams and Edmund Morel exposed horrific acts in the Congo under Belgian rule. Soldiers committed atrocities, including cannibalism and mutilation, in pursuit of slaves and resources. Limited media coverage and suppression allowed these atrocities to continue without widespread public outcry. The readings exemplify the brutal impact of colonialism on both colonized and colonizers. -
U.S. Annexation of the Philippines
United States acquired the Philippines from Spain in 1898 after the Spanish-American War. Initial support for Filipino rebels turned into U.S. opposition to their independence.
Philippine-American War (1899-1902) resulted in thousands of American and Filipino casualties. U.S. introduced colonial rule with public works, economic development, improved education, and an elected legislative assembly in 1907. -
South African War (1899–1902)
The British-Afrikaner conflict over Transvaal's gold fields led to a devastating war, impacting both white and black populations. British tactics caused destruction, concentration camps, and African involvement. The war laid the foundation for apartheid, emphasizing racial divisions in South Africa.