A map of English literature from the beginning to 1660

the last Ice Age

8000 BCE

by 8000BC, the last Ice Age had ended and the climate had on the whole become milder and more stable making continuous habitation from then possible

Britain an Ireland became islands

7000 BCE

Britain had until that time been linked to the Continent by a marshy plain, but the melting ice caps caused the sea level to rise, so that by 7000BC, Britain and Ireland became islands for good

the Stone Age

3000 BCE

built in various stages: the oldest goes back to 3000BC

Celtic tribes arrived from Europe

600 BCE

from 600BC onwards

the Britons or Celts

Period: 600 BCE to 55 BCE

Celtic tribes
Small rural communities

the Roman period

Period: 55 BCE to 410

55-54 BC expeditions; trading and diplomatic contacts; 43 AD invasion and conquest ; 122 AD Hadrian's Wall sophisticated urban civilisation; introduction of Christianity; decline from 350 AD onwards

Roman expeditions; trading and diplomatic contacts

54 BCE

in 55-54 BC, two exploratory Roman expeditions were undertaken during the reign of Julius Caesar. These were followed by a century of trading contacts between Rome en the British Celts, especially in the South East

Invasion and conquest of the Romans in Britain

43

The Romans wanted the biggest empire the world had ever seen. This ambition finally brought them to invade Britain by military force in 43 AD

Hadrian's Wall sophisticated urban civilisation

122

the emperor Hadrian ordered a long defensive frontier wall to be built to mark the northern frontier of Roman Britain from coast to coast

Anglo-Saxons

Period: 400 to 600

Angles, Saxons, Jutes arrival; Celts driven away towards the "fringe" (mass migration and settlement of Anglo-Saxons in Britain)
537 AD death of King Arthur

Roman legions departed from Britain (deal with invasions in Italy)

410

In the second half of the 4th century, Scottish invaders were making incursion across Hadrian's Wall and Anglo-Saxon pirates were beginning to attack the southern-eastern coast + political trouble within the RE

Boethius De Consolatione Philosophiae (and other prose translations)

524

Originally written in Latin ca. 524 AD by Boethius in prison, awaiting to be executed => translated several more times into English

defeat and death of the King Arthur

537

Emergence of a manuscript culture

597

A written culture developed in Britain after the conversion to Christianity from 597 onwards => link between Christianity and written communication => the Bible

St Augustine's arrival

597

Celtic Christianity had to take a fresh start some two centuries after the end of the Roman occupation, with the arrival of St Augustine (because of occupation of pagan Germanic tribes) => it marks the beginning conversion to Christianity. St Augustine sent by Pope Gregory arrives in Kent with some monks to Christianise England. King Aethelbert was the 1ste English king to be converted.

Old English (=Anglo-Saxon)

Period: 600 to 1066

Caedmon, "Hymn of creation"

Period: 660 to 680

the oldest poem in English => we know nothing about Caedmon except what Bede tells us about him in his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum

Synod of Whitby

664

Differences (between Celtic Church more or less cut off and St Augustine's missionaries) were resolved at the Synod of Whitby, which led to the unification of the English Church

Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum

731

Bede wrote it as a British and Anglo-Saxon supplement to the existing histories of the Church => more "political" objective to strengthen the unity of the English Church

First Viking raids

793

Viking raids were part of the mass movement of the "Scandinavian" Germanic people between the year 750 and 1050 (affected the whole Europe) => the Danish and Norse invaders spreading over Scotland and Ireland the North and the East of England => middle of the 9th century half of England was in Viking hands

King Alfred "the Great"

Period: 871 to 886

-reign from 871 to 886
-was king of Wessex (AS kingdom rose into prominence during the 9th century)
-defeated the Vikings

-reformed the English army
-wanted to bring about a cultural revival and to re-educate the AS in the true Christian spirit

King Alfred's victory

878

King Alfred, who ruled over Wessex, succeeded in defeating the Danes and stopping the progression towards the South => the Danes withdrew north of a line agreed by treaty in an area which is known as the Danelaw (refers to the Danish influence on legal customers) => process of assimilation (influence on the language)

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

890

it started in 890, can be described as a series of annals => the manuscript in Peterborough continued until 1154 => it has to be called Peterborough Chronicle

Recovering of the Danelaw

955

King Alfred's successors did even better an damaged to recapture political control of the Danelaw from the Scandinavian rulers (completed by 955) => England was united and the royal house of Wessex also became the royal house of England

Beowulf

1000

the most important literary achievement of AS times => date of composition is very uncertain, usually believed to have been composed in the 8th century => the only one manuscript dating from roughly 1 000 AD (damaged by a fire in 1731)

King Cnut's victory

1016

A century after Alfred's victory, a new move of Viking raids swept over the whole country => AS were unable to meet the challenge and suffered various defeats => in 1016, the Danish king Cnut gained full control of the land, so that England an Denmark became united kingdoms (famous legend)

England and Normandy were ruled by the same king

1066

England's first king after 1066 often devoted more time and attention to the French territories of their kingdoms than to English part, which they saw as a mere extension of the former. English and French existed side by side => England and France ruled by the same king from 1066 onwards

king Harold

1066

After Cnut's death a confused period followed => ended with a conflict between the last AS king Harold and his rival Duke William of Normandy => in 1066, Harold ascended the throne => BUT the was to be ousted end killed in the Battle of Hsting by William of Normandy => William claimed the succession => this event marks the end of The Old English and the beginning of the Middle English period

William I ("the Conqueror")

1066

In 1066, Duke William of Normandy defeated the English at Hastings and began his rule as William I -> The Roman were originally Vikings -> They had previously conquered the region of France (Normandy today) -> integrated with its native population, adopting the local language -> form of French = result from this assimilation process
Bayeux tapestry -> represented the conquest of England by William
William had to crush several Anglo-Saxon revolts

Bayeux Tapestry

1066

not really a "tapestry" but a long band of linen (5à com wide and over 70 m long) embroidered with coloured wool -> represents in 58 scenes the key events in the reign of Harold II and the conquest of England by William -> unique historical chronicle (remind the convention of the modern comic strip)

the Middle English period

Period: 1066 to 1485

House of Normandy

Period: 1066 to 1154

William I ("the Conqueror") => William II => Henry I => Stephen

A new, French-speaking, leading class

Period: 1066 to 1250

-William of Normandy descended -> Scandinavian occupied northern France (10th century) and had learnt the French dialect
-From 1066 onwards, England and French -> ruled by the same king + side by side
-the mariage of King Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine (1154)+ weakened position of England and English language
-aristocracy and senior clergy -> French-speaking bc Norman -> had helped William in conquest of England -> rewarded with lands, titles ad high positions in Church and Government

English voices of protest and the alliterative revival

Period: 1066 to 1485

-1066, the AS aristocracy was ousted by a new generation of leaders from France -> brought a new language & new modes of cultural expressions -> aristocratic patronage
-however, literature in English not extinct -> famous texts (Peterborough Chronicle; Layamon's Brut) -> English used by the church -> part of AS oral tradition

Domesday Book

1086

a manuscript recorded of the "Great survey" of much of England and part of Wales completed in 1086 at the behest of king William I, known as William the conqueror

Historia Regum Britannia

1137

Geoffrey of Monmouth, author of the History of the king from 1137

Geoffrey of Monmouth, Historia Regum Britanniae

1137

-Geoffrey of Monmouth was an Welshman
-his Historia Regum Bitanniae from 1137 = one of the most central books of the Middle Ages
-presents a colourful mixture of historical fact and fiction (not acceptable by the modern and standard s of modern historical research -> pages devoted to King Arthur almost pure fabrication)
-mine to be exploited by several later generations of writers

Carmina Burana

1140

the most famous collection of Goliardic songs and poem is called "Carmina Burana" (12th century)

Henry II + Eleanor of Aquitaine

1154

-reign from 1154 to 1189
-the most powerful ruler in Western Europe
-inheritance (England, Normandy) + his mariage Eleanor of Aquitaine (owned much of the Western half of France) = empire
-competent king
-achievement overshadowed -> murder of the King's former friend Thomas Becket in 1170

House of Plantagenet : Angevin Empire

Period: 1154 to 1216

William I was succeeded by his sons William II and Henry I and then by his grandson Stephen -> succession disputed -> ended in anarchy and civil war
Henry II => Richard I => John
after Stephen's death, Henry II succeeded -> 1st Plantagenet king -> this dynasty remains in power until 1485 (end of Middle Ages)

Roman de Brut

1155

Robert Wace, a Norman, wrote a free paraphrase of Geoffrey's Historia in Norman French, adding many element (motif of the Round Table). It is called Roman de Brut.

Robert Wace, Roman de Brut

1155

Rober Wace, a Norman, wrote a free paragraphe of Geoffrey's Historia in Norman French -> adding many elements (the Round Table) from others sources -> resulting Roman de Brut

Murder of Thomas Becket

1170

power struggle developed between the King and the Church -> Thomas Becket (archbishop of Canterbury) was opposing Henry's attempts to bring the church within the juridiction of the king's court -> Becket wanted the Church to use its own courts -> climax when Becket (King's former friend) was murdered in Canterbury cathedral by 4 followers of the king -> Becket canonised

Richard I "Lionheart"

1189

• reign from 1189 to 1199 -spent first half of his reign on crusade => epithet "Lionheart" -second part mostly on France-> trying to regain lands taken by the French king

King John "Lackland"

1199

-Richard's younger brother (reign 1199 to 1216)
-lost most of the family's possessions in France -> causing the Angevin empire to Collapse
-ambition to win back his former continental possessions -> impose heavy taxes on the barons -> baronial rebellion

Layamon, Brut

1205

this version of Geoffrey's Historia was freely adapted into English by a writer named Layamon -> this poem in alliterative verse marks first occurence of the Arthurian story in English

Magna Carta

1215

King John (Richard's younger brother) -> lost most of the family's possession in France -> Angevin empire to collapse -> ambition to win back his former continental possessions -> impose heavy new taxes on the barons -> baronial rebellion -> forced to sign the Magna Carta (main message: king is not above the law = defence of individual rights against the absolute power of despots)

Later Plantagenet kings

Period: 1216 to 1400

Henry III => Edward I => Edward II => Edward III => Richard II

French influence on the English language

1250

-from 1250 onwards, Old English = purely Germanic language but many French words found their way into English voc especially in certain lexical fields
-sphere of high culture (cuisine) linked with everyday activities if ordinary folk (farming)-> lexical structure reflects social culture
-gradual decline of complex inflectional system of old English -> vast increased of words borrowed from French & reduced system of grammatical inflections -> transition from "Old English" to "Middle English"

French influence on English literature

1250

-literature reserved for the higher classes-> only people could afford to support artist financially (patronage)-> literature in England up to 1250 in French (French literature from the continent or French-language writings on English soil)
-after 1250, original compositions + & + in English-> French influence remained very strong-> French lexical elements fully integrated into English literature-> translation from French; new verse forms; new genres: fabliau & romance; new code of value

a period of transition from French to English as language of the nobility

Period: 1250 to 1350

-King and noblemen-> more interested in English affairs-> slow process of assimilation
-key factor-> political and military developments in France-> in English kings from king John onwards -> losing French territories (Edward III: Hundred Years' War+Henry V: victory of Agincourt -> unsuccessful)
-AS families-> difficult keep their possession or maintain claims on France-> tend to divide their estates among their heirs along geographical lines-> families owning land in both countries grew - & -

Edward III

1312

-reign from 1312 to 1377
-Edward led England into the Hundred Year's War with France -> claiming the French Throne -> taking the title of King of France (1337-1453)
-he saw the ravages of the Black Death -> pandemic caused by bubonic plague -> killing almost half of its population in Britain in 1348 -> ruining economy and social unrest

John Wycliffe: the Bible in English

Period: 1330 to 1384

-an influential theologian
-have seen times of disease (Black Death, 1348) and economic hardship
-struck by the corruption of the church and its inadequacy in dealing with the problems of the people
-has radical conclusions against the interests of the church (the Bible -> had to be translated into the language of the people-> could read and understand)
-similar view with Martin Luther, William Tyndale and other reformers a century later (nicknamed as the "Lollards" =mumblers, mutterers)

William Langland' Piers Plowman: an alliterative dream allegory

Period: 1330 to 1386

-a religious rural priest from the West Midlands -> speak out against the many injustices
-in his sleep, saw a picture of sinful society
-piers the plowman, a honest farmer -> his guide to st Truth
-Salvation -> work's central theme -> being sinful human can we go to the paradise
-emphasis the needs spiritual regeneration -> expressed search for salvation with realism and consciousness + satire at the corruption of Church and social elite
-become a work of social protest

Hundred Years' War

Period: 1337 to 1453

in 1337, Edward III led England into the Hundred Years' War with France, claiming the French throne and taking the title of King France -> "Hundred Year's War" not very accurate -> series of wards occurred

Geoffrey Chaucer

Period: 1343 to 1400

Black Death

1348

a pandemic caused by the bubonic plague hit Britain -> killing almost half of its population -> rising its economy -> leading to great social unrest

English as the language of England's upper classes was secure

1350

this is reflected by creative talent (second half of the 14th century-> leading writers:
-John Wycliffe(1330-1384); William Langland (1130-1386); the Gawain poet; Geoffrey Chaucer(1343-1400) Wycliffe and Langland-> members of the Church but critical of its inadequacies and abuses-> ahead of the great Protestant movement-> sweep EU in Renaissance period Langland & Gawain-poet recourse to the "old" alliterative from of AS verse-> desire to cultivate and revitalise native English literature

Richard II

1367

• reign from 1367 to 1399 -> particularly troubled -in 1399, Richard II was forced to abdicate in favour of his cousin Henry IV, duke of Lancaster -> died (or murdered?) shortly thereafter in prison

Henry IV

1399

• after the forced abdication of Richard II -> took the English throne in 1399 in a speech famously made in English (not in Latin or French)

House of Lancaster and York

Period: 1399 to 1485

Henry IV => Henry V => Henry VI => Edward IV => Edward V => Richard III

Henry V

1412

-reign from 1412 to 1422
-determined to win back the lands in France belonged to his ancestors -> reopened the Hundred Years' War -> defeated the French at Agincourt in 1415 (represented a symbolic revenge for the defeat of the English by the French at Hasting in 1066)
-married the daughter of the French king -> heir to the French throne
-early died from disease

Agincourt battle

1415

Henry V was determined to win back the lands in France -> reopened the Hundred Year's War -> defeated the French at Agincourt in 1415 => symbolic revenge for the defeat of the English by the French at Hasting in 1066

Henry VI

1422

-reign from 1422 to 1461 + from 1470 to 1471
-crowned King of both England and France when was still a child
-weak ruler + suffered from bouts of insanity

Joan of Arc

1453

the French inspired by the romantic martyr figure of Joan Arc -> managed to expel the English from all of France (except Calais) -> defeat put an end to the Hundred Year's War

the Wars of the Roses

Period: 1455 to 1485

a civil war in England between the (Lancastrian) followers of the King and his (Yorkist) opponents: the Wars of the Roses -> members of the Royal dynasty of York began to contest the legitimacy of Henry's claim to the throne -> around 1455 this conflict came to a head -> erupted in a series of civil disturbances -> following "Yorkists" came to the throne

Edward IV

1461

-reign from 1461 to 1483
-Edward of York succeed in deposing Henry VI (of Lancaster) -> became the next English king as Edward IV

Edward V

1483

-reign during 2 months in 1483
-when Edward died -> his 12-y-old son was put on the throne as Edward V

Richard III

1483

-reign from 1483 to 1485
-Edward's uncle Richard appointed as the young king's protector (Richard turned to his own clan) -> emprisoned Edward V and his younger brother Prince Richard in the Tower of London -> claiming they were illegitimate children -> he himself the rightful heir to the throne
-fate of the young princes unknown -> widely believed that Richard arranged their murder

Henry Tudor

1485

in 1485, Henry Tudor, the Lancastrian claimant to the throne -> led a successful attempt to overthrow Richard III -> defeated and killed him at the Battle of Bosworth -> became King Henry VII, 1st Tudor king => marking the end of the English Middle Ages and the beginning of the English Renaissance and the beginning of the English Renaissance

Gorboduc, the first English tragedy

1561

the Renaissance period

Period: 1585 to 1660

Selection of Goliardic songs set to music by Carl Orff

1937