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Francis Bacon
Francis Bacon publishes The Advancement of Learning, the first in a series of works expounding his scientific method. -
De Dignitate et Augmentis Scientiarum
Francis Bacon publishes his De Dignitate et Augmentis Scientiarum, which further outlines his new scientific method. -
Philosopher René Descartes
Philosopher René Descartes writes his Meditations, a discussion of his Cartesian theory and God's existence. -
the greatest happiness of the greatest number
Francis Hutcheson coins the term "the greatest happiness of the greatest number" in his Inquiry Concerning Moral Good and Evil. -
Voltaire
Voltaire publishes his Treatise on Tolerance. -
Napoleone Buonaparte in Ajaccio
Napoleon is born Napoleone Buonaparte in Ajaccio, on the Mediterranean island of Corsica, which lies to the west of Italy. The island comes under French rule this same year. Napoleon later adopts the French spelling of his name, Napoléon Bonaparte. -
completing his education
After completing his education in France, Napoleon joins the French military, becoming an artillery officer. -
Charles-Alexandre de Calonne
Charles-Alexandre de Calonne, France’s controller general of finances, assembles nobles and representatives of the bourgeoisie to discuss the country’s budget deficit. Calonne suggests taxing the privileged classes, but the assembly refuses to take responsibility for that reform. Instead, the assembly suggests convening the Estates-General, which has not met since 1614. -
The Estates-General
The Estates-General, composed of representatives from the First Estate (clergy), Second Estate (nobility), and Third Estate (the lower classes), meet at Versailles. They are immediately divided over the issue of whether to count by head or to give each estate equal votes. -
The Estates-General
The Estates-General met at Versailles on May 5, 1789, and immediately ran into an impasse, disagreeing on whether it should vote by head (thereby giving the advantage to the Third Estate) or by estate (in which case the two privileged orders might outvote the third). On June 17 the struggle over the issue drove representatives of the Third Estate to declare themselves the National Assembly and threaten to proceed, if necessary, without the other two orders. -
National Assembly
The dispute over votes in the Estates-General leads deputies of the Third Estate to declare themselves the National Assembly. Along with some members of the clergy, they threaten to proceed without the other two estates. -
Royal officials lock the National Assembly
Royal officials lock the National Assembly out of their regular meeting hall; members of the assembly occupy the king’s indoor tennis court. They take what comes to be known as the Tennis Court Oath, promising not to disperse until they give France a new constitution. -
King Louis XVI
King Louis XVI relents and urges the other two estates to join the assembly, which takes the official title of National Constituent Assembly. The king, however, begins to gather troops with the intention of dispersing the body. -
Amid the Great Fear
Amid the Great Fear of July 1789, when Parisians were panicked about the possibility of the aristocracy overthrowing the Third Estate, a large crowd seizes the Bastille prison, which is a symbol of royal tyranny. -
The National Constituent Assembly
The National Constituent Assembly introduces the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, a document that shares Enlightenment influences with the Declaration of Independence. The king refuses to sanction it, resulting in Parisians marching to Versailles and forcing the royal family back to Paris. -
France goes to war
Following the King’s execution, France goes to war with various European powers. This signals the most violent phase of the French Revolution. Infighting within the National Convention leads to the radical Montagnards taking power. This marks the start of the bloody Reign of Terror (la Terreur), a year-long period in which suspected enemies of the revolution are killed in their thousands. -
France declares war on Austria
France declares war on Austria. For the next seven years, the hostilities known as the French Revolutionary wars continue between France and various European powers. -
Prussia and Great Britain
Many European leaders grew concerned about the events in France. They did not want the revolutionary principles to spread to their countries. France declared war against Austria on April 20, 1792. Prussia and Great Britain soon joined forces with Austria against France. -
New assembly
A new assembly, the National Convention, meets, abolishes the monarchy, and establishes a republic. -
the French Revolution
After a long period of debate about how the new constitution will work, the French Revolution takes a radical turn when revolutionaries arrest the King. The following month, on 22 September 1792, the National Convention is established. This proclaimed the abolition of the monarchy and established the French Republic. The King is tried and, on 21 January 1793, he is executed as a traitor. -
Louis XVI
Louis XVI, judged by the convention, is executed for treason. -
Reign of Terror
During the Reign of Terror, a period during which radical elements of the government enact harsh measures against those they consider enemies, Marie-Antoinette is executed by guillotine. The Reign of Terror is overseen by Maximilien Robespierre. -
Robespierre
Robespierre is overthrown in the National Convention. He is executed the next day, signaling the end of the Reign of Terror. Soon after, the National Convention is dissolved, making way for a government consisting of a five-person Directory and a bicameral legislature. -
Napoleon joins a plot
Napoleon joins a plot that overthrows the Directory on November 9–10 (18–19 Brumaire in the French republican calendar). This event is often considered the effective end of the French Revolution. A new government, the Consulate, is established, and Napoleon is made first consul, or leader of France. -
Napoleon
A victory over Austria at the Battle of Marengo leaves France the dominant power on the continent. -
Napoleon’s death
The French were devastated by the news of Napoleon’s death. His veteran soldiers remembered with fondness their general and loved to tell tales about their great victories. The king, Louis-Philippe, decided to have Napoleon’s body brought back to France. On 15 December 1840, Napoleon was buried in the crypt of the church of Saint-Louis des Invalides. Thousands of French people as well as foreign visitors attended this special ceremony.