War and Peace: International Relations 1890-1945

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    Unification of Germany

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    Franco-Prussian War

    19 July 1870: War declared by France on Prussia.
    28 January 1871: Paris surrenders to Prussian forces.
    10 May 1871: Treaty of Frankfurt ends the war. France is defeated, losing Alsace-Lorraine to Germany, which fosters lasting enmity. The victory secures German unification under Prussian leadership.
  • Second Concert of Europe

    Following the Franco-Prussian War, European powers reconvene to manage the balance of power and prevent large-scale conflicts. Bismarck establishes Germany as a status quo power, focusing on peace in Europe.
  • Treaty of Frankfurt

    War ended between France and Germany
  • German Empire proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles.

    After victories in wars against Denmark (1864), Austria (1866), and France (1870-1871), Prussia unified the German states (excluding Austria) into a single nation-state, forming the German Empire under Prussian King Wilhelm I and Chancellor Otto von Bismarck.
  • League of the Three Empires created

    Russia, Austria and Germany
    Allowed to isolate France alone in Europe
  • Serbic revolt

    Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro revolted against Turkey
    They got defeated by the Turks
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    Great Eastern Crisis

    30 March 1877: Russia declares war on the Ottoman Empire.
    3 March 1878: Treaty of San Stefano grants independence to Balkan states.
    13 July 1878: Treaty of Berlin revises the Treaty of San Stefano.
    The Balkans emerge as a geopolitical hotspot. Nationalist uprisings challenge Ottoman control, with Russia supporting Slavic independence. The Treaty of Berlin aims to stabilize the region but leaves lingering tensions.
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    Russo-Turkish War

    Russian advance on Turkey for the Balkans.
    Set up a large pro-Russian Bulgaria
  • Congress of Berlin

    Revised the Treaty of San Stefano, shrinking Bulgaria by dividing it into three: a smaller autonomous Bulgaria, Eastern Rumelia (Ottoman-controlled), and Ottoman Macedonia. The independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania was recognized, but with territorial limits. Austria-Hungary gained control over Bosnia and Herzegovina, while Britain obtained Cyprus to support the Ottomans against Russia. Led to Balkan War and WW1
  • Campaign in Bosnia

    Austria-Hungary occupies Bosnia and Herzegovina. Austria-Hungary gains control over Bosnia, creating friction with Serbia and Russia, who see themselves as protectors of Slavic people in the region
  • Prince Alexander’s Kidnapping

    When Alexander resisted becoming a Russian puppet, he was kidnapped and forced to abdicate by the Russian government. This increased British and Austrian concerns over Russian ambitions in the Balkans.
  • Austro-German Alliance

    One attacked by Russia, the other would come to its rescue with 'the whole war strength' of its empire
    One of the two empires were attacked by any other power, its ally wold adopt a neutral but friendly attitude
    Treaty was in the first instant to last five years but could be renewed
    Secret, but in the event of Russian threats its gist would be leaked to the tsar to deter him from taking any further action
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    First Boer War

    16 December 1880: First Boer War begins.
    3 August 1881: Peace Treaty of Pretoria ends the First Boer War.
  • Anglo-French involvement in Egypt

    April 1876 Egypt went bankrupt and couldn't pay back loans from European investors.
    1881 both powers were challenged by a nationalist uprising led by officers in the Egyptian army. French vetoed the dispatch of french troops, left the British to deal with.
    Britain became masters of Egypt, and never left.
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    Austro-Serbian Alliance

    28 June 1881: Alliance signed between Austria-Hungary and Serbia. Serbia agrees to align with Austria-Hungary, giving Austria influence over Serbian politics and foreign policy, though Serbia resents this control.
  • Three Emperors' Alliance

    If one of the three empires went to war with a fourth power (except for conflict between Austria and Russia), the other two would remain neutral.
    Aimed to limit Austro-Russian competition in the Balkans by diplomatically supporting each other’s regional interests.
    G:Prevent conflicts among the three empires, especially over Balkan territories. Isolate France, ensuring Germany was secure from a two-front war. Manage Russian and Austrian rivalry in the Balkans diplomatically rather than militarily
  • British forces landed in Egypt

  • Triple Alliance

    Bismarck worked with Italy to isolate France and maintain stability in Europe. In 1882, he included Italy in the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary. This agreement pledged mutual defense if any member was attacked by France, creating a counterweight to French influence. Bismarck's goal was to secure Germany's position by aligning Italy and Austria-Hungary, preventing France from forming alliances that could threaten Germany's stability. This alliance continued until World War I.
  • Creation of the German colonial empire

    Annexed territory in South West Africa, Cameroon's, Togoland and New Guinean.
    Improved French and German relations dramatically as they were able to co-operate and override British objection to calling an international conference in Berlin to decide the future of the African territory.
    French became friend with Germany because of Britains gain of Egypt
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    Berlin Conference

    15 November 1884 – 26 February 1885: European powers meet to divide Africa.
    The "Scramble for Africa" is formalized. European powers divide the African continent without regard for local populations, fueling colonial rivalries.
  • End of Franco-German co-operation

    New French Govt led by Louis Freycinet was forced to adopt a more anti-German policy, when the nationalistic General Boulanger, who believed that his mission was to prepare for war against Germany, joined the cabinet as minister of war.
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    Bulgarian crisis

    18 September 1885: Bulgaria unites with Eastern Rumelia.
    Following the disintegration of the League of the Three Emperors, Austria and Russia came close to open conflict. Russia expressed aggressive intentions, even stating Austria should "disappear from the map of Europe." Austria and Britain looked to Germany, hoping Bismarck would oppose Russian influence in the Balkans.
  • Mediterranean Agreement

    Bismarck encouraged Britain, Italy, and Austria-Hungary to establish a pact to maintain the status quo in the Mediterranean, Adriatic, and Aegean Seas.
    This aimed to curb Russian influence and expansion, indirectly pressuring Russia to resolve its differences with Austria diplomatically.
  • Bulgarian Throne Election

    Prince Ferdinand of Coburg elected to the Bulgarian throne; Russia saw this as an Austrian conspiracy. Russian Reaction: Russian press, led by Pan-Slavs, accused Germany of backing Austria. German Economic Pressure (November 1887):
    Reichsbank ordered not to accept Russian bonds as collateral, impacting Russia’s economy.
    Outcome: Financial strain prevented Russia from invading Bulgaria or starting war with Austria.
  • Second Mediterranean Agreement

    Bismarck secured a second Mediterranean Agreement with Britain and Italy to keep Russia out of Bulgaria and Turkey.
    This strengthened Austria's position, but pushed Russia towards closer ties with France for financial and political support.
  • Reinsurance Treaty

    When Tsar Alexander III dismissed the anti-German Pan-Slavic influence in his government, Bismarck negotiated a secret treaty with Russia. This treaty reassured Russia that Germany would remain neutral if Russia and Austria-Hungary were in conflict, provided Russia did not attack Germany.
    Germany implicitly supported Russian interests in Bulgaria and Eastern Roumelia.
    Turkey was not to open the Straits to a navy hostile to Rus Brit. If Turkey did so, Ger and Ruswould see it as a hostile act.
  • William II's Ascension

    The new Kaiser, William II, was keen on a British alliance, distancing himself from Bismarck's policies.
    Tsar’s Offer: Tsar Alexander III offered to renew the Reinsurance Treaty indefinitely, reflecting Russia’s appreciation of Bismarck’s policies.
  • Bismarck dismissed

    Bismarck was dismissed before the treaty renewal, and his successor General Leo von Caprivi refused to renew the Reinsurance Treaty, seeing it as contradictory to the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria, Italy).
    Without the Reinsurance Treaty, Russia grew closer to France, forming the basis for the Franco-Russian alliance, which would become a factor in the lead-up to World War I.
  • End of Reinsurance Treaty

    After Bismarck's dismissal, Caprivi chose not to renew the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia, as officials felt it conflicted with the Dual Alliance (Germany-Austria, 1879) and Mediterranean Agreements (1887).
    This decision weakened German-Russian relations, prompting Russia to seek other allies. This decision laid groundwork for the Franco-Russian Dual Alliance in 1894.
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    Weltpolitik

    Literally world policy or a policy that attempted to make Germany a global power
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    Scramble for Africa and Asia

    Although Europe’s power struggles moved largely outside Europe to regions like Africa and China, tensions among European powers continued to build.
    Germany still believed Britain’s vulnerable empire would eventually force Britain into the Triple Alliance with Germany, Austria, and Italy. However, this hope remained unfulfilled, as Britain avoided formal alliances with Germany.
    European Great Powers (Britain, France, Germany, Russia) and Japan (newly emerging imperial power)
  • Franco-Russian Alliance begining

    The French navy visited Russia’s Kronstadt naval base as a gesture of goodwill and friendship. Within a month, France and Russia agreed to consult each other on matters that could threaten peace, laying groundwork for deeper cooperation.
  • Kaisers State Visit to London

    The visit led Russian officials to suspect—incorrectly—that Germany and Britain had formed a secret alliance.
    Russian Foreign Minister Nikolay Giers proposed negotiations with France to counterbalance the supposed Anglo-German alliance.
  • Construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway

    This railway enabled Russia to move troops more easily into the region and increased Russian influence in Manchuria.
    Russia’s Goal: To secure an ice-free port in Korea (strategically important for trade and military purposes).
    Russia's expansion posed a direct threat to Britain’s commercial interests in China.
    Russia often received support from France and Germany in its Far Eastern ambitions.
    Japan saw Russian expansion into Korea and Manchuria as a direct threat to its own security.
  • Caprivi Statement

    Caprivi remarked that "the best opening of the next great war is for the first shot to be fired from a British ship," hoping this would push Britain into the alliance.
    Germany aimed to form a “Quadruple Alliance” with Britain, Austria, and Italy to counter Russia and France.
    Caprivi believed that Britain’s global empire would face threats from France and Russia, eventually forcing Britain to ally with Germany.
  • Caprivi Statement British Position

    Lord Salisbury, British PM, refused any formal alliance with Germany, saying that defending German and Austrian borders against Russia posed greater risk than protecting Britain from France.
    Britain preferred to resolve colonial disputes independently rather than tie itself to German alliances.
    Without Bri support, Ger became increasingly dependent on A-H as its primary ally.
    This dependency made Ger vulnerable to A-H demands, especially during Balkans crises, straining relations with Russia,
  • Franco-Russian Alliance

    France and Russia signed a secret defensive military alliance.
    This agreement marked the end of France's diplomatic isolation in Europe. Although secret, the alliance heightened German fears of encirclement and a potential two-front war against both France and Russia.
    The Franco-Russian Alliance (1894) reoriented Europe’s power dynamics, isolating Germany diplomatically.
    With France and Russia now allies, Germany faced the possibility of fighting on two fronts in any future conflict.
  • British Navy League

    The British Navy League promoted support for Britain’s naval supremacy, especially in response to Germany’s expansion. It pressured the government to expand the Royal Navy, backing the 1906 launch of the HMS Dreadnought and, in 1909, a commitment to build eight more battleships. Advocating the “Two-Power Standard” to protect trade routes and influence, the League rallied public and government backing for naval dominance, fueling Anglo-German rivalry and increasing tensions leading up to WWI.
  • TREATY OF COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION.

    The Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (1894) between Japan and the United States marked a significant shift in Japan’s international relations. It ended extraterritorial rights for Americans in Japan and established more equal trade terms. This treaty reflected Japan’s growing power after its victory in the First Sino-Japanese War and its modernization efforts, marking its transition from unequal treaties to a sovereign, respected nation on the global stage. It also strengthened diplomatic ties.
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    First Sino-Japanese War

    1 August 1894: War begins between China and Japan.
    17 April 1895: Treaty of Shimonoseki ends the war.
    Japan wins and gains Taiwan, asserting itself as a modern military power. China’s weakness sparks competition among European powers for influence in East Asia.
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    Background The Jameson Raid and the Kaiser’s Response

    Britain faced colonial competition from Germany in Southern Africa, particularly near German South West Africa (now Namibia).
    The Transvaal’s economic importance surged after gold discoveries in 1886, and by 1894, the Transvaal’s economy was heavily influenced by German investment.
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    The Jameson Raid

    Cecil Rhodes, Brit PM of the Cape Colony, orchestrated an unauthorized raid to overthrow the Boer government in the Transvaal, which failed disastrously.
    Kaiser Wilhelm II initially considered declaring the Transvaal a German protectorate and providing military support but ultimately settled on sending a congratulatory telegram to President Paul Kruger of the Transvaal.
    The “Kruger Telegram” infuriated Britain, where anti-German sentiment surged, with German-owned shops vandalized in retaliation
  • Germany launches naval program

    under Admiral Tirpitz, intending to build a fleet of 60 battleships. This threatened Britain’s control over the seas, a core element of British power and empire preservation.
  • Russia and Austria agreement (Balkans)

    Russia and Austria sign an agreement to avoid disturbing the Balkans and Near East.
  • Fashoda Crisis

    A French expedition reached Fashoda (in Sudan) first, raising the French flag as a claim to the territory.
    General Herbert Kitchener and a British force arrived soon after, fresh from victory at the Battle of Omdurman over Sudanese forces.
    Rather than use of force to remove the French, Kitchener chose a diplomatic approach, leaving the matter for London and Paris to resolve.
    France, lacking support from other powers, ultimately backed down and conceded to British demands in the Sudan.
  • Fashoda Crisis Historian thoughs

    Historian J.V. Keiger calls Fashoda the "worst crisis in Franco-British relations since Waterloo," yet paradoxically, it marked a turning point, leading France to reconsider its position on Egypt and to seek British support for future ambitions in Morocco.
  • Navy League

    The German Navy League promoted support for Germany’s naval expansion, justifying a need for a powerful fleet. It aimed to influence opinion, push pro-naval policies, and back Admiral von Tirpitz’s fleet-building program. By 1908 the League had over a million members from diverse backgrounds, including the middle class, aristocracy, and industrialists, making it highly influential. It successfully pressured the government to pass Naval Laws, leading to substantial battleship production increases
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    The Boer War and Lack of Continental Support

    By 1899, President Kruger of the Transvaal, confident in his rebuilt and German-armed Boer forces, declared war on Britain, expecting support from other European powers. Despite Britain’s vulnerable position, neither France, Germany, nor Russia could agree to join forces against Britain due to a lack of cooperation and Britain’s dominant naval power.
    End of the War: Britain fought the Boers in a prolonged conflict, eventually emerging victorious in 1902 after a costly war.
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    Germany's econmic rise

    challenged British commercial supremacy.
    German industries (steel, chemicals, engineering) were competing globally, especially in markets previously dominated by Brit
    This led to increasing economic hostility between Britain and Germany.
    Ger fleet-building program, part of its aggressive Weltpolitik, alarmed Britain, whose naval dominance was a key part of its power.
    The construction of a large German fleet threatened Britain’s naval supremacy, leading to Britain’s rethinking of its alliances.
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    Anglo-German Rivalry

    Between 1900 and 1914, Ger became an economic powerhouse:
    Ger industries (steel, chemicals, and engineering) overtook Britain in many sectors.
    Ger exports dominated markets previously controlled by Brit (e.g., Middle East, South America, South Africa).
    Ger progress in industrial sectors was perceived as a direct challenge to Brit industrial dominance.
    This economic competition stoked anxiety in Brit, leading to increased hostility towards Germany and growing concerns over Brit global position.
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    Rise of German Economic Power

    German industrial power and its ability to undercut British goods in global markets caused concern in Britain.
    This prompted debates within Britain about abandoning free trade and imposing tariffs, which would harm German exports.
    Germany’s growing colonial ambitions were partly driven by the need for more markets for its industrial products.
  • The Anglo-Japanese Alliance

    Britain and Japan formed a defensive alliance to counter Russian expansion in East Asia. Britain acknowledged Japan's interests in Korea, while Japan recognized Britain's in China. Britain would stay neutral unless a third power aided Russia, while Japan would intervene only if a third power declared war on Britain. This marked the first military agreement between a Western power and an Asian nation, signalling Japan's rise in global power.
  • National Service League

    British pressure group. Purpose was to alert the country to the inability of the army to fight a major war and to purpose the solution of national service
  • Treaty of Vereeniging (Boer war end)

    Britain battles the Boer republics in South Africa, ultimately annexing them. The wars expose Britain’s military weaknesses and fuel anti-British sentiment in Europe.
  • Assassination of pro-Austrian Serbian King

    Assassination of pro-Austrian Serbian King Alexander Obrenović and replacement by Peter Karageorgević, a nationalist and anti-Austrian leader.
    A nationalist faction takes power in Serbia, steering it away from Austrian influence and towards Russia, intensifying regional tensions.
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    The Russo-Japanese War

    The war was fought largely in isolation.
    France (having signed a colonial agreement with Britain) and Germany (fearing vulnerability in Europe) did not intervene.
    Russia's response:
    Russia was struggling with internal revolution (1905 Russian Revolution), which weakened its ability to continue the war.
    Russia agreed to mediation by US President Theodore Roosevelt in August 1905.
  • Anglo-French entente (NOT AN FORMAL ALLIANCE)

    The Entente Cordiale signed, improving Anglo-French relations. It settled colonial issues in:
    Newfoundland: French fishing rights were exchanged for West African territories.
    Siam (Thailand): Divided into British and French spheres of influence.
    Morocco and Egypt: Britain allowed France control over Morocco; France allowed Britain control over Egypt.
    Secret clauses also allowed France and Britain to establish protectorates in these areas in the future.
  • The Schlieffen Plan

    Germanys way on how to win a war on two fronts, against France in the west and Russia in the east.
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    Background and Implications for War Planning

    December 1905: The German Schlieffen Plan is finalized, preparing for a two-front war in the event of a conflict with France and Russia.
    1905-1912: The British and French military staffs begin secret discussions, coordinating plans in case of a German invasion of France. This reflects the growing entente’s shift towards military alignment, prompted by Germany’s aggressiveness in Morocco and naval expansion.
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    Battle of Mukden

    Major land victory for Japan, leading to the defeat of Russian forces.
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    The First Moroccan Crisis (1905-06)

    In 1905, Ger, led by von Bülow, challenged French influence in Morocco, established by the 1904 Entente. Kaiser Wilhelm II declared support for Moroccan independence in Tangier to disrupt the Franco-British alignment. The July 1905 Björkö Agreement promised a Russo-German alliance but was abandoned by Rus. At the 1906 Algeciras Conference, most states backed France, isolating Ger, which gained only minor concessions. The crisis nearly triggered war and strengthened the Franco-British alignment.
  • Port Arthur

    Decisive naval victory for Japan, crushing the Russian fleet.
  • Battle of Tsushima

    Decisive naval victory for Japan, crushing the Russian fleet.
  • Treaty of Portsmouth

    Signed in New Hampshire, mediated by the US.
    Russia withdrew from Korea and Manchuria and ceased to be a major threat to Britain or Japan in the Far East.
    Japan gained control over Korea and southern Manchuria.
  • Dreadnought battleship

    Britain launches the Dreadnought battleship, modernizing its fleet. However, the new design allowed Germany to catch up in naval strength.
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    Pig War

    Economic conflict between Austria-Hungary and Serbia.
    Serbia seeks economic independence from Austria, increasing tensions.
  • Algeciras Agreement.

    The 1906 Algeciras Act affirmed France’s “special interest” in Morocco, allowing significant French influence while formally respecting Moroccan independence.

    France and Spain were given control to supervise Morocco's police forces, ensuring European oversight under Franco-Spanish management.
    Economic Rights: Germany gained a minor concession, with all European powers granted equal economic access, preventing any single nation from monopolizing Moroccan trade or resources.
  • Triple Entente

    Britain, Russia and France
  • Anglo-Russian Agreement

    Russia’s defeat by Japan (1905) reduced its threat to British interests in China, making an Anglo-Russian agreement possible.
    The Anglo-Russian Agreement (1907) resolved disputes over Persia, Afghanistan, and Tibet, aligning Britain and Russia.
  • Bosnia and Herzegovina annexed by Austria

  • Germany announces a supplementary naval program

    Germany announces a supplementary naval program to build four capital ships per year, increasing British anxieties and pressuring Britain to respond.
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    ussia protests and demands a European conference, but Austria vetoes this, fearing a repeat of the Algeciras Conference.

  • Young Turk Revolution

    Young Turks force the Sultan to restore the Ottoman constitution.
    Modernization efforts in the Ottoman Empire inspire Balkan nationalism, creating instability.
  • Austria and Russia deal.

    Austria and Russia agree on a deal: Russia allows Austrian annexation in exchange for control over the Straits.
  • Austria officially annexes Bosnia and Herzegovina.

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    Bosnian Crisis

    5 October 1908: Austria-Hungary annexes Bosnia and Herzegovina.
    Conclusion: Serbia and Russia oppose the annexation, worsening tensions in the Balkans.
  • Britain built more battleships

    Due to domestic pressure from the Navy League and public opinion, Britain agrees to build eight new battleships in 1909, and ten more over the next two years.
  • France and Germany signed an agreement on economic cooperation in Morocco

    France and Germany signed an agreement on economic cooperation in Morocco to ease tensions, signalling a temporary improvement in Franco-German relations.
  • Relations deterioated again

    due to:
    French encroachment in Morocco, with local French officials increasing administrative and economic control, violating the 1906 Algeciras Agreement.
    German Foreign Secretary von Kiderlen-Wächter’s appointment, leading to a more assertive German foreign policy aimed at countering Entente powers.
  • French troops intervene in Fez

    French troops intervene in Fez, Morocco, after riots against the Sultan break out. France aims to occupy Morocco entirely, contrary to the 1906 Algeciras Agreement, which had granted France a "special interest" but not full control.
  • Germany sends gunboat Panther

    Germany sends the gunboat Panther to the Moroccan port of Agadir, demanding territorial compensation in the French Congo in exchange for not obstructing France's actions in Morocco.
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    Second Moroccan Crisis

    Political instability in Morocco, including a rebellion against the Sultan, created an environment ripe for foreign intervention.
    Germany escalated the situation by sending the gunboat Panther to Agadir. This aggressive move was ostensibly to protect German citizens but was widely perceived as a power play against France. Crisis was defused with the Treaty of Berlin. Germa recognized F control over Morocco in exchange for territories in sub-Saharan Africa, notably parts of what is now Cameroon.
  • British government intervenes

    British government intervenes. Chancellor of the Exchequer, David Lloyd George, states that Britain cannot be ignored where her interests are affected. This is seen as an ultimatum to Germany, which prevents a compromise between France and Germany.
  • France and Germany reach a secret agreement

    France and Germany reach a secret agreement. France is allowed to establish a protectorate over Morocco. Germany receives a small part of the French Congo and ensures its economic interests in Morocco are respected. This marks a diplomatic defeat for Germany, as they fail to extract significant concessions from France.
  • Second Moroccan Crisis effects

    The Second Moroccan Crisis further escalates international tensions, leading to increased militarization in Europe, strengthening of alliances, and setting the stage for future conflicts, particularly in the Balkans.
  • French response to German rebuilding

    In response to Germany's military buildup, France extends conscription from two to three years and modernizes artillery.
  • Diplomatic Isolation of Germany

    By the end of 1912, both the Dual Alliance (Germany-Austria) and the Anglo-French Entente are significantly strengthened.
    Germany, facing diplomatic isolation, clings more strongly to its alliance with Austria. This sets the stage for increasing tensions in the Balkan crises (1908-14).
  • Wehrverein

    Defence league. Pressure group founded in Germany in 1912 to press for an increase in the size of the army
  • Britain, the Navy League and the National Service League subjected their own government of similar pressures like in Germany

  • Plan 17

    France focuses on reclaiming Alsace-Lorraine but fails with high casualties.
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    Germany increases its army by 146000

    1912: Germany increases its army by 29,000 men.
    1913: The German army expands further with 117,000 men and 119 officers and non-commissioned officers.
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    First and Second Balkan Wars

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    Strengthening of the Triple Entente

    July 1912: F-R naval convention signed. Both countries agree to coordinate naval tactics in the event of war.
    1912: F-R military chiefs meet and decide to launch joint attacks against Ger if war breaks out.
    1912: B-F naval staff also discuss joint strategies for dealing with Ger in the Medite and English Channel.
    November 1912: F-B govt exchange letters defining the Entente.Not a formal alliance, the letters state that if either nation is attacked, they will consult about potential joint action.
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    First Balkan War

    1912: Italy invades Libya, prompting Balkan states (Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, and Bulgaria) to form an alliance against the Ottoman Empire.
    October 1912: The Balkan League declares war on Turkey; within three weeks, the Ottoman Empire is pushed out of Europe.
    3 December 1912: An armistice is signed between the Balkan states and Turkey.
  • Armistice signed between the Balkan states and Turkey

    Tensions rise in the Great Powers:
    Austria: Concerned with a stronger Serbia, especially as Serbia occupies part of Albania.
    Russia: Opposes Bulgaria’s advance toward Constantinople and the Straits, vital for Russian economic interests.
    2 December 1912: Germany issues a statement of support for Austria if attacked by a third power, while Britain signals it won’t stay neutral in such a conflict.
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    Russia army. Expected to reach 2 million men by June 1914

    After the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05), Russia begins rebuilding its military. By 1913-14, Russia spends over 800 million roubles on rearmament. By June 1914, Russia's army is expected to reach 2 million men.
  • Treaty of London 1913

    Turkey loses all its European territories, except for a small area around the Dardanelles and Bosphorus.
    Albania is established as an independent state, satisfying Austria’s demands.
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    Second Balkan War

    Turkey loses all its European territories, except for a small area around the Dardanelles and Bosphorus.
    Albania is established as an independent state, satisfying Austria’s demands.
    Austria is the clear loser as Serbia grows stronger, and Austria’s position in the Balkans weakens.
  • Treaty of Bucharest

    Serbia, Greece, and Romania gain additional territories. Bulgaria loses land.
  • Treaty of Constantinople

    Turkey regains some land from Bulgaria.
  • Outbreak of First World War

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    War in Africa

    Allied forces capture German colonies in West Africa (Togoland, Cameroons).
    07/1915: German South West Africa surrenders to British forces.
    German East Africa - Successful guerrilla campaign by General von Lettow-Vorbeck until the end of the war in 1918.
  • Saravejo incident

    Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, and his wife are assassinated in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Black Hand, a Serbian nationalist group.
    Austria-Hungary sees the assassination as an opportunity to curb Serbian influence and control over Bosnia and the South Slavic regions.
  • Germany issues the 'Blank Cheque'

    Kaiser Wilhelm II and Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg assure Austria of unconditional support, known as the "blank cheque."
    Germany hopes a swift punitive war against Serbia could restore Austro-German prestige and deter Russian support for Slavic nationalism.
    German leaders gamble that Russia will not intervene due to military and financial unpreparedness.
  • Austria Decides on an Ultimatum

    The Austro-Hungarian ministerial council meets; Chancellor Berchtold considers a surprise attack on Serbia.
    Hungarian Prime Minister Tisza advises presenting Serbia with an ultimatum first, only declaring war if it is rejected.
    The ultimatum includes demands for Austrian supervision of Serbia’s anti-terrorist measures, aiming to provoke a Serbian rejection.
  • Austrian Ultimatum Sent to Serbia

    Austria issues an ultimatum to Serbia with stringent demands, particularly Austrian involvement in Serbian investigations and security.
    Austria expects Serbia to reject the demands, hoping to justify military action.
  • Serbia's Response to the Ultimatum

    Serbia’s response is conciliatory but rejects Austria’s demand for supervision, offering partial compliance instead.
    Austria, unimpressed with Serbia’s reply, breaks off diplomatic relations, seeing it as insufficient.
  • Austria declared war on Serbia

  • Russian Partial Mobilization

    Russia orders the mobilization of military districts near Austria-Hungary, including Odessa, Kiev, Kazan, and Moscow.
    Russia seeks to protect Serbian sovereignty and limit Austro-Hungarian influence in the Balkans.
  • Germany Issues Ultimatum to Russia

    With Russian mobilization underway, Germany issues a 12-hour ultimatum to Russia to cease mobilization.
    Germany also questions France’s intentions, requesting neutrality in a Russo-German war.
  • France Begins Mobilization

    French cabinet authorizes full mobilization.
    Although initially hesitant, France commits due to its alliance with Russia, unable to risk a German victory that would shift the balance of power in Europe
  • Germany declared war on Russia

    Germany declares war on Russia as its ultimatum expires without compliance.
    Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg positions the declaration as a defensive move, gaining support within Germany by framing Russia as the aggressor.
  • Germany Issues Ultimatum to Belgium

    Germany demands passage through Belgium to execute the Schlieffen Plan, aiming to outflank French defenses.
    Belgium rejects the ultimatum, asserting its neutrality.
  • Germany declared war on France

    Germany, assuming inevitable French involvement, declares war on France and proceeds with plans to invade Belgium.
  • German troops invaded Belgium

  • Britain declared war on Germany

    British Foreign Secretary Sir Edward Grey leads the cabinet to support France and Belgium after Germany violates Belgian neutrality.
    Britain sends an ultimatum to Germany, demanding respect for Belgian neutrality.
    When Germany fails to respond, Britain declares war on Germany, aligning with France and Russia.
  • Schlieffen Plan used

    08/1914: Germany implements Schlieffen Plan aiming to quickly defeat France before Russia’s full mobilization. German forces advance through Belgium, Luxembourg, and into northeast France.
  • Plan 17 used

    Plan 17 by France focuses on reclaiming Alsace-Lorraine but fails with high casualties.
  • Japan Declared War on Germany

    capturing German territory in Shantung and the Pacific islands; Japan focuses on consolidating control over China.
  • Battle of Tannenberg

    German forces defeat the Russians in East Prussia, forcing Germany to shift two corps east.
  • Battle of the Marne

    French and British counter-attack stops German advance near Paris; Germans retreat to the Aisne and dig in.
  • First Battle of Ypres

    German attempts to outflank Allies in northern France fail, ending the “war of movement” and beginning trench warfare along a 400-mile front.
  • Turkey joined the Central Powers

    Threatens British interests in Egypt; Britain deploys forces to defend the Suez Canal and takes Basra to secure oil supplies.
  • Military Stalemate and Trench Warfare Development

  • Artillery

    Both sides enhance heavy artillery capabilities, using techniques like the creeping barrage for attacks.
    Creeping Barrage: Moving curtain of artillery fire aimed to eliminate opposition in front of advancing troops Big Berthas: German artillery capable of firing massive shells to destroy defenses.
  • Trench Warfare

    Trench warfare becomes entrenched, with defensive positions fortified by barbed wire, machine guns, sandbags, and deep dugouts. Trench attacks are typically launched in waves, resulting in high casualties with minimal territorial gain.
  • Period: to

    Gallipoli Campaign

    01/1915: British navy controls the seas, with Germany blockaded. Gallipoli Campaign inspired by Winston Churchill to force the Dardanelles, potentially open Russia to Allied supplies, and knock Turkey out of the war.
    04/25/1915: Allied troops land at Gallipoli but lack the element of surprise; campaign turns to trench warfare and fails, with Allied troops withdrawn by 12/1915.
  • Gas Warfare

    Germans use chlorine gas at Ypres; initial success but impact reduced over time with development of gas masks.
    Caused 7000 casualties
  • Treaty of London 1915

    Italy joined the war. Rewards were meant to be land.
  • Period: to

    Eastern Front and German Advances (1915)

    05/1915: Germans shift focus to the Eastern Front with a new campaign to deliver a decisive blow against Russia.
  • Period: to

    Gorlice-Tarnow Offensive

    Gorlice-Tarnow Offensive: Central Powers break Russian lines, advancing 150 km and capturing Warsaw (08/1915)
  • Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary

  • Bulgaria joins central powers

    Bulgaria joins Central Powers after the Central Powers’ victories in the east.
    Despite victories, Russia remains in the war, and the Central Powers are still engaged on two fronts.
  • Period: to

    Battle of Verdun

  • Battle of Jutland

  • Period: to

    Battle of the Somme

  • Tanks

    Concept of tanks developed in 1915 as a response to trench warfare challenges; trials begin in early 1916.
    Battle of Somme, tanks were introduced by Great Britain
  • Bolshevik revoultion in Russia

  • USA declared war on Germany

  • Period: to

    Bolshevik Revolution

  • Defeat of the Central Powers

  • Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

  • Period: to

    German offensive on the Western Front

  • German armistice

  • Treaty of Versailles

  • Period: to

    Great Depression

  • Hitler appointed chancellor of Germany

  • Pact of Steel

    Military alliance with Germany and Italy
  • Germany declared war on Poland

  • Britain and France declared war on Germany

  • Italy declared war on Britain and France

  • Germany attacked USSR

  • Period: to

    Japan attacked Pearl Harbor

  • Unconditional surrender of Germany

  • Unconditional surrender of Japan