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Montesquieu publishes book, On the Spirit of Laws
Montesquieu believed that Britain was the best-governed and most politically balanced country. He called Britain's division of powers among different branches separation of powers. This idea became a part of his most famous book, "On the Spirit of Laws". In his book, Montesquieu proposed that separation of power would keep any individual or group from gaining total control of the government. His ideas about separation of powers and checks and balances became the basis for the Constitution. -
America declares independence
The Declaration of Independence, written by political leader Thomas Jefferson, was firmly based on the ideas of John Locke and the Enlightenment. In addition, the Declaration of Independence included a long list of George III's abuses. The document ended by declaring the colonies' separation from Britain. Shortly after the publication of the Declaration of Independence, the two sides went to war. In the end, the Americans won their war for independence. -
French Revolution
In the 1770s, the Old Regime remained in place. The people of France were divided into estates. The heavily taxed and discontented Third Estate was eager for change. By the 1780s, France's once prosperous economy was in decline. New ideas about government, serious economic problems, and indecisive leadership all helped to generate a desire for change. Peasants, nobles, and officers of the Church were afraid. Some countries took action since they feared similar revolts in their countries. -
Napoleon overthrows the Directory through a coup d’etat
By 1799, the Directory had lost control of the political situation and the confidence of the French people. When Napoleon returned from Egypt, his friends urged him to seize political power. Troops under his command surrounded the national legislature and drove out most of its members. The lawmakers who remained then voted to dissolve the Directory. In its place, they established a group of three consuls. Napoleon took the title of first consul and assumed the powers of a dictator. -
Haiti wins freedom from France
Oppressed people in the French colony of Haiti rose up against their French masters. In August 1791, 100,000 enslaved Africans rose in revolt. Toussaint L'Ouverture rose to become a skilled general. By 1801, he had freed all enslaved Africans. In January 1802, French troops landed in Haiti to remove Toussaint from power. Toussaint's lieutenant, Jean-Jacques Dessalines took up the fight for freedom. On January 1, 1804, General Dessalines declared the colony an independent country. -
Napoleon crowns himself emperor, begins to create a vast European Empire
In 1804, Napoleon decided to make himself emperor, and the French voters supported him. On December 2, 1804, dressed in a splendid robe of purple velvet, Napoleon walked down the long aisle of Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris. The pope waited for him with a glittering crown. As thousands watched, the new emperor took the crown from the pope and place it on his own head. With this gesture, Napoleon signaled that he was more powerful than the Church. -
1810 Padre Hidalgo calls for Mexican Independence
Padre Miguel Hidalgo, a priest in the small village of Dolores, took the first step toward independence. On September 16, 1810, he rang the bells of his village church. When the peasants gathered in the church, he issued a call for rebellion against the Spanish. That call is known as the "grito de Dolores" (the cry of Dolores). Hidalgo's Indian and mestizo followers began a march toard Mexico City. They met the Spanish army and creoles, who feared their lives. The army defeated Hidalgo in 1811. -
Napoleon is defeated at the Battle of Waterloo
In response to Napoleon becoming emperor, European allies marshaled their armies. The British army (Duke of Wellington) prepared for battle near the village of Waterloo in Belgium. On June 18, 1815, Napoleon attacked. The British army defended its ground all day. Late in the afternoon, the Prussian army arrived. Together, the British and Prussian forces attacked the French. Two days later, Napoleon's exhausted troops gave way, and the British and Prussian forces chased them from the field.
