Unification of Germany

Napoleon 1

Oct 27, 1806

Name and title: Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, Napoleon 1st of France. Originally Napoleone Buonaparte, also unofficially known as The Little Corporal (Le Petit Caporal) and The Corsican. More on 'Was Napoleon Short?' Dates: Born: 15th August 1769 in Ajaccio, Corsica Married (Josephine): 9th March 1796 in Paris, France Married (Marie-Louise): 2nd April 1810 in Paris, France Died: 5th May 1821 on St. Helena First Consul of France: 1799 - 1804 Emperor of the French: 1804 - 1814, 1815Biography of Napoleon Bonaparte: One of the greatest military commanders and a risk taking gambler; a workaholic genius and an impatient short term planner; a vicious cynic who forgave his closest betrayers; a misogynist who could enthrall men; Napoleon Bonaparte was all of these and more, the twice-emperor of France whose military endeavors and sheer personality dominated Europe in person for a decade, and in thought for a century. Birth in Corsica Napoleon was born in Ajaccio, Corsica, on August 15th 1769 to Carlo Buonaparte, a lawyer and political opportunist, and his wife, Marie-Letizia. The Buonaparte's were a wealthy family from the Corsican nobility, although when compared to the great aristocracies of France Napoleon's kin were poor and pretentious. A combination of Carlo's social climbing, Letizia's adultery with the Comte de Marbeuf - Corsica's French military governor - and Napoleon's own ability enabled him to enter the military academy at Brienne in 1779. He moved to the Parisian École Royale Militaire in 1784 and graduated a year later as a second lieutenant in the artillery. Spurred on by his father's death in February 1785, the future emperor had completed in one year a course that often took three. Early Career: The Corsican Misadventure Despite being posted on the French mainland, Napoleon was able to spend much of the next eight years in Corsica thanks to his ferocious letter writing and rule bending, as well as the effects of the French Revolution (which led to the French Revolutionary Wars) and sheer good luck. There he played an active part in political and military matters, initially supporting the Corsican rebel Pasquale Paoli, a former patron of Carlo Buonaparte. Military promotion also followed, but Napoleon became opposed to Paoli and when civil war erupted in 1793 the Buonapartes fled to France, where they adopted the French version of their name: Bonaparte. Historians have frequently used the Corsican affair as a microcosm of Napoleon's career. Early Career: Fluctuating Success The French Revolution had decimated the republic's officer class and favoured individuals could achieve swift promotion, but Napoleon's fortunes rose and fell as one set of patrons came and went. By December 1793 Bonaparte was the hero of Toulon, a General and favourite of Augustin Robespierre; shortly after the wheel of revolution turned and Napoleon was arrested for treason. Tremendous political 'flexibility' saved him and the patronage of Vicomte Paul de Barras, soon to be one of France's three 'Directors', followed. Napoleon became a hero again in 1795, defending the government from angry counter-revolutionary forces; Baras rewarded Napoleon by promoting him to high military office, a position with access to the political spine of France. Bonaparte swiftly grew into one of the country's most respected military authorities - largely by never keeping his opinions to himself - and he married Josephine de Beauharnais. Commentators have considered this an unusual match ever since. Napoleon and The Army of Italy In 1796 France attacked Austria. Napoleon was given command of the Army of Italy - the post he wanted - whereupon he welded a young, starving and disgruntled army into a force which won victory after victory against, theoretically stronger, Austrian opponents. Aside from the Battle of Arcole, where Napoleon was lucky rather than clever, the campaign is legitimately legendary. (More on the Italian Campaign.) Napoleon returned to France in 1797 as the nation's brightest star, having fully emerged from the need for a patron. Ever a great self-publicist, he maintained the profile of a political independent, thanks partly to the newspapers he now ran. Failure in the Middle East, Power in France In May 1798 Napoleon left for a campaign in Egypt and Syria, prompted by his desire for fresh victories, the French need to threaten Britain's empire in India and the Directory's concerns that their famous general might seize power. The Egyptian campaign was a military failure (although it had a great cultural impact) and a change of government in France caused Bonaparte to leave - some might say abandon - his army and return in the August of 1799. Shortly after he took part in the Brumaire coup of November 1799, finishing as a member of the Consulate, France's new ruling triumvirate. First Consul The transfer of power might not have been smooth - owing much to luck and apathy - but Napoleon's great political skill was clear; by February 1800 he was established as the First Consul, a practical dictatorship with a constitution wrapped firmly around him. However, France was still at war with her fellows in Europe and Napoleon set out to beat them. He did so within a year, although the key triumph - the Battle of Marengo, fought in June 1800 - was won by the French General Desaix. From Reformer to Emperor Having concluded treaties that left Europe at peace Bonaparte began working on France, reforming the economy, legal system (the famous and enduring Code Napoleon), church, military, education and government. He studied and commented on minute details, often while travelling with the army, and the reforms continued for most of his rule. Bonaparte exhibited an undeniable skill as both legislator and statesmen - a study of these achievements could rival those of his campaigns for size and depth - but many have argued that this talent was deeply flawed and even fervent supporters admit that Napoleon made mistakes. The Consul's popularity remained high - helped by his mastery of propaganda, but also genuine national support - and he was elected Consulate for life by the French people in 1802 and Emperor of France in 1804, a title which Bonaparte worked hard to maintain and glorify. Initiatives like the Concordat with the Church and the Code helped secure his status.

Napoleon 1

Oct 27, 1806

http://ts1.mm.bing.net/th?id=H.5028127916687900&w=300&h=366&c=7&rs=1&qlt=80&pid=1.7

Napoleon 1

Oct 27, 1806

http://ts3.mm.bing.net/th?id=H.4851862527018634&w=194&h=180&c=7&rs=1&pid=1.7

Napoleon 1

Oct 27, 1806

http://ts2.mm.bing.net/th?id=H.4811172029991925&w=140&h=180&c=7&rs=1&pid=1.7

Napoleon 1

Oct 27, 1806

A Napoleonic Era Timeline15 August 1769 - Napolione di Buonaparte born in Ajaccio, Corsica15 May 1779 - Napoléon (now using the French spelling) enters the Military College of Brienne in France17 October 1784 - Napoléon enters the Royal Military College of Paris and graduates 21 October 1785 as a Second Lieutenant1789-99 - The French Revolution1793 - The Siege of Toulon, where Napoléon is promoted to Brigadier General5 October 1795 - At the request of Director Barras, Napoléon crushes a royalist upraising, is promoted to General-in-Command - Army of the Interior and first meets Joséphine Beauharnais9 March 1796 - Napoléon marries JoséphineMarch 1796 - October 1797 - First Italian Campaigns, which include victories over the Austrians at Lodi, Arcola and Rivoli and the signing of the Treaty of Campo-FormioMay 1798 - October 1799 - Egyptian Campaign, which ends with Napoléon’s hasty return to Paris9-10 November 1799 - Napoléon seizes power in the Coup of 18 Brumaire, is elected First Consul of the Republic and declares the end of the RevolutionMay-June 1800 - Second Italian Campaign, where Napoléon defeats the Austrians on 14 June at the Battle of Marengo24 December 1800 - Napoléon survives bomb plot25 March 1802 - Treaty of Amiens signed with England4 August 1802 - Adoption of the new constitution and Napoléon made Consul for life3 May 1803 Sale of the Louisiana Territory by France to the United States16 May 1803 - Peace of Amiens breaks down21 March 1804 - The Napoléonic Code established18 May 1804 - Napoléon proclaimed Emperor of the French and a new constitution creates an imperial monarchy2 December 1804 - Napoléon is crowned as Emperor by Pope Pius VII in Notre-Dame Cathedral17 May 1805 - Napoléon crowned King of Italy in the Milan CathedralApril-December 1805 - The Third Coalition of England, Naples, Russia and Austria formed against France, with Admiral Nelson destroying the French Fleet on 21 October at the Battle of Trafalgar2 December 1805 - Coalition dissolves with Napoléon’s victory at the Battle of Austerlitz1 April 1806 - Napoléon’s brother Joseph Bonaparte becomes King of NaplesOctober 1806 - Fourth Coalition of England, Prussia and Russia formed against France but Napoléon gains victories at Jena and Auerstadt and enters Berlin on 27 October21 November 1806 - The Continental Blockade begins, closing continental ports to British ships14 June 1807 - The Russians are defeated at Friedland and the Treaty of Tilsit is signed between Czar Alexander I of Russia and Napoléon on 7 July22 July 1807 - Grand Duchy of Warsaw created16 August 1807 - Napoléon’s brother Jerome becomes King of Westphalia30 November 1807 - The French occupy Portugal and seize Lisbon on 1 December20 February 1808 - Occupation of Spain begins under the command of Murat and Joseph becomes King of Spain on 4 June (Murat replaces him in Naples)April-October 1809 - Napoléon defeats Austria on 5 July at the Battle of Wagram and then enters Vienna15 December 1809 - Napoléon divorces Joséphine in order to remarry and conceive an heir2 April 1810 - Napoléon marries Archduchess Marie-Louise of Austria in religious ceremony31 December 1810 - Russia breaks with Napoléon20 March 1811 - Napoléon and Marie-Louise’s son, the King of Rome, is born19 June 1812 - United States declares war with BritainJune-December 1812 - The Russian campaign, where Napoléon is forced, for the first time, to retreat and the Grand Army is decimatedMarch-November 1813 - Sixth Coalition of England, Austria, Prussia and Russia formed against France, with Wellington taking Madrid on 12 August, victory at Leipzig on 15 October in the Battle of Nations, Napoléonic Germany collapsing and Holland being lostJanuary-March 1814 - Allied troops enter France with the fall of Paris on 30-31 March4 April 1814 - Napoléon abdicates unconditionally at Fontainebleau, royal authority under the Bourbons is re-established, returning France to a constitutional monarchy, and Empress Marie-Louise and the King of Rome flee to Bois4 May 1814 - Napoléon exiled to the island of Elba off the coast of Italy where he is made ruler and retains his title as Emperor29 May 1814 - Empress Joséphine dies at the Château of MalmaisonMarch-June 1815 - Napoléon escapes from Elba and lands at Golfe Juan in the south of France, his old armies rally to his side as he marches to Paris, Louis XVIII flees to Ghent on 20 March and Napoléon reigns again for what is known as “The Hundred Days”18 June 1815 - Wellington and Blücher defeat Napoléon at the Battle of Waterloo22 June 1815 - Napoléon’s second abdication at the Elysée Palace in Paris which is followed by his surrender to the English on 15 July17 October 1815 - Napoléon is exiled to St. Helena, a barren island in the South Atlantic5 May 1821 - Napoléon dies in his home, Longwood, on St. Helena22 July 1832 - Napoléon’s son, the King of Rome, who became the Duke of Reichstadt in 1816, diesMay-December 1840 - The English Government allows the Emperor’s ashes to be returned to France, his body is exhumed on 15 October and placed in the Invalides in Paris on 15 December17 December 1847 - Empress Marie-Louise, who was made the reigning Duchess of Parma in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna, dies15 December 1940 - Adolph Hitler returns the ashes of Napoléon’s son to Paris for internment in the Invalides

Napoleon 1

Oct 27, 1806

1. Introduction: Brief History of Prussia. 2. Glory Years of the Prussian Army. 3. Decline of the Army. 4. Reforms of 1807-1812. 5. Prussian Army in 1812. 6. Prussian Army in 1813-1815. 7. Prussian General Staff.The defeat of the Prussian army by Napoleon shocked the Prussian establishment, which had felt invincible after the victories of Frederick the Great. Scharnhorst, Gneisenau, Grolman, and Boyen, began to reform the army. The reformers were dismayed by the populace's indifferent reaction to the 1806 defeats. When Napoleon rode into Berlin he was greeted by crowds which, were as enthusiastic as those that had welcomed him in Paris. The Prussians had surrendered and Frederick the Great's sword and sash were sent to Paris as trophies. France occupied Prussia, and Napoleon treated Prussia and her King worse than he had treated any conquered country before. The French occupation angered many Prussians. In comparison to 1806, the Prussian populace in 1813 was supportive of the war, and thousands of volunteers joined the army. Prussian troops won several battles and proved vital at the Battles of Leipzig and Waterloo. After Napoleon's defeat and abdication, Prussia and Russia proposed to partition France, while Austria and Great Britain strove for and pushed through a lenient treatment of France

Napoleon 1

Oct 27, 1806

OverviewThe Napoleonic Library is an outstanding collection of seminal works on the Napoleonic Wars. It features evocative contemporary memoirs and makes available once again the classic works on the subject by military historians.

Napoleon 1

Oct 27, 1806

Negative effect, because he put Prussia down and didnt allow Prussia to do anyting, he took over and ruled Prussia

Napoleon 1

Oct 27, 1806

Napoleon I, French in full Napoléon Bonaparte, original Italian Napoleone Buonaparte, byname the Corsican or the Little Corporal, French byname Le Corse or Le Petit Caporal (born August 15, 1769, Ajaccio, Corsica—died May 5, 1821, St. Helena Island), French general, first consul (1799–1804), and emperor of the French (1804–1814/15), one of the most celebrated personages in the history of the West. He revolutionized military organization and training; sponsored the Napoleonic Code, the prototype of later civil-law codes; reorganized education; and established the long-lived

Napoleon 1

Oct 27, 1806

After Napoleon's humiliation of Prussia at Jena, the French Emperor turned his attention to subduing his Russian foe and marched into Poland in the winter of 1806. Six months later, the Russians had been beaten and brought to the peace table and Napoleon was at the height of his power. In his detailed study of this remarkable episode of Napoleonic history, updated by the contemporary Napoleonic expert David Chandler, the great military historian F.Loraine Petre follows every move of the campaign. He assesses the defeat of Prussia, analyses the strengths and weaknesses of both Napoleon's army and that of his Russian opponents, details the bloody and indecisive battle of Eylau - where Napoleon's troops were fought to a standstill in the snows of a Polish winter - and describes Napoleon's crushing victory over the Russians at Friedland.

Prussia's Army

Oct 18, 1813

http://ts1.mm.bing.net/th?id=H.4823378307973404&w=116&h=181&c=7&rs=1&pid=1.7

Prussia's Army

Oct 18, 1813

http://ts2.mm.bing.net/th?id=H.4967573191590757&w=192&h=181&c=7&rs=1&pid=1.7

Prussia's Army

Oct 18, 1813

http://ts3.mm.bing.net/th?id=H.4967573191590758&w=156&h=180&c=7&rs=1&pid=1.7

Prussia's Army

Oct 18, 1813

Prussian Reserve Infantry: 1813-15By Robert MantleEditor's Note: This paper was first published as a pamphlet by the Napoleonic Association in the late 1970s. The Napoleonic Association has very generously given us permission to place it on the Napoleon Series. It is reproduced in its entirety except for those parts that cover wargaming. Click here for more information on the Napoleonic Association. IntroductionDuring the period 1813-1815, the Prussian Army underwent a vast expansion, which the country's limited resources were unable to keep pace with. The consequence was a variety of unifroms with few, if any, parallels in military history. This short study describes an aspect of the Prussian Army rarely covered by wargamers and collectors. It makes no claims to be the last word, and any additional information that could clear up points which remain vague, would be welcome, for future editions.The Prussian Infantry who mobilised in 1806 were products of a system that had not altered since the Seven Years' War. They were immaculately dressed, drilled into unquestioning obedience, savagely punished if they fell foul of their commanders and were unfit for the new type of warfare in every possible way. At Auerstädt and Jena, they discovered their training was totally inadequate and as Napoleon's troops tore into the retreating Prussian army, its elderly commanders succumbed to panic or shocked paralysis. The whole campaign was epitomised by the surrender of Hohenlohe's army at Prenzla, where Murat was able to bluff a vastly superior force into laying down its arms. Twenty-nine thousand men under L'Estocq managed to link up with the Russian army in East Prussia, but by the end of November 1806, the majority of the Prussian Army had surrendered and Frederick the Great's sword and sash were on their way to Les Invalides as trophies. The basic material of the old army, the private soldier, was sound, but internal weaknesses had meant that the Prussian army was out-thought as well as outfought.By the treaty of Tilsit, Prussia was reduced to the status of a second rate power, losing territory in Westphalia, Poland and along the Elbe. She was diplomatically isolated, impoverished by war and with a large proportion of her population disillusioned with their leaders. It was the darkest hour of her history, but at this point, the initial shock of defeat was succeeded by a feeling of shame and outrage which bred a desire to reform the whol fabric of the Prussian state.The Evolution of the Reserve Infantry: 1807-1813The Prussian army, naturally enough, was one of the principal targets for reform, and on July 15,1807, King Friedrich Wilhelm III appointed the Military Reform Commission. After clearing up the debris of the old army, the commission set about establishing a smaller more efficient force, and on September 25, submitted proposals for an army of 65-70,000, including sixteen infantry regiments. This was believed to be the maximum number of men that Prussia could support.Napoleon, aware of the Prussian desire for revenge, had no intention of letting Prussia regain her strength, and the Treaty of Paris, September 1808 limited her army to 42,000 men for a period of ten years. There was little that King Friedrich Wilhelm could do to resist with a t powerful French army in occupation and his country impoverished and unprepared for war; the Commission had to draw up new plans, and in their final form these called for six independent brigades based on the remaining Prussian Provinces.Although the Commission's first proposals had been overtaken by events, one was to have profound insignificance. The idea of universal conscription on the French model was considered and rejected, partly because of expense and partly for political reasons -- the King and the conservative party were opposed ot any 'revolutionary' schemes that might lead to social upheavals. (Similar objections were raised to the ideas of promotion by merit and, in 1813 to the Landwehr and Landsturm. The concept of a nation in arms was a new and rather alarming one to many Prussians.) However, some form of reserve force was required and in a memorandum of July 31 1807, Scharnhorst suggested that each company (or squadron) should replace twenty trained men with recruits. A Cabinet order modified these proposals: in their final form they recommended that each company should send five men on extended leave every month and take in five recruits. By this 'Krumper' system the army could meet the requirements of the Treay of Paris, but a trained reserve could be built up for the future. A problem arose with regimental commanders, who, quite naturally, were unwilling to part with good men. They preferred to discharge less than the number required, or only discharge thier worse men - a time honoured military custom. Nevertheless, a reserve gradually built up, while the regular infantry, organised into twelve regiments, trained for the new type of warfare.In 1811, the deepening crisis in Franco-Russian relations led to diplomatic pressure on Friedrich Wilhelm to make a formal alliance with France. Prussia' weak position and her King's weak character made such an alliance inevitable and many of the reform party retired from active service in disgust. Several, notably Clausewitz, resigned from the army and took service with the Russians -- an act for which the King, typically, never forgave them. However, this diplomatic activity meant an increase in the army's strength. On June 14 1811, Prussian Infantry regiments, which had consisted of two battalions of Musketeers and one of Fusiliers, were ordered to form a third Musketeer battalion. In order to allay French suspicions, these battalions were given camouflage titles, such as Training Depots, (Exerzier Depots). When King Friedrich Wilhelm finally signed a treaty of alliance with the French, on February 24 1812, his army numbered 65, 675 -- not enought for independent action against France, but an improvement on 42,000.Prussia's contribution to the French invasion of Russia was 20,842 men, grouped into 'combined regiments' drawn from all six brigades. They were commanded by Yorck, who had vociferously opposed many army reforms, with another conservative, Kleist as his second-in-command. This Corps was assigned to the left wing of the invasion, under the command of Marshal Macdonald, operating along the Baltic coast with St Petersburg as the objective. The advance bogged down around Riga, while the central army group, under Napoleon's command, disintegrated; Macdonald had to pull back before overwhelming Russian forces. During this retreat, Yorck's force became detached from the main body and surrounded. Clausewitz and Baron Stein, a former minister who had been expelled from Prussia on Napoleon's orders, open negotiations with Yorck, who finally signed the Covention of Tauroggen on December 30 1812, joining forces with the Russians and advancing with them into East Prussia.Friedrich Wilhelm's first reaction was to send an officer to arrest Yorck; he then declared for Napoleon and ordered general mobilisation on January 10. Once again, the King was taking the line of least resistance, as he was unsure of Russian support (which had been promised in1806 and come too late to save his country). The Russian response was to occupy East Prussia with the full co-operation of the inhabitants.; Yorck summoned 1,200 reservists to the colours, while Clausewitz drew up plans for an East Prussian Landwehr. Events gathered momentum. On January 19, Friedrich Wilhelm formally repudiated the Convention of Tauroggen, three days later, he left Berlin for Breslau where he could watch events from the sideline, before committing himself to either party. As the full extent of the French disaster became apparent, enthusiasm for war against Napoleon grew, while it ws now clear that Tsar Alexander would support the Prussians. On February 1, the number of infantry battalions was doubled, increasing the army by 37,000 men -- effective call-up of the Reserves. Finally, on February 26, Friedrich Wilhelm signed the Convention of Kalisch, and alllied himself witht eh Russians. The War of Liberation had begun.

Prussia's Army

Oct 18, 1813

Prussian military reforms 1786-1813

Prussia's Army

Oct 18, 1813

The Battle of Bautzen 20-21 May 1813.Following Napoleon’s victory at Lützen on 2 May 1813 Prince Ludwig Pyotr Wittgenstein’s Russo-Prussian army retreated to Bautzen, where it was reinforced by 13,000 Russians commanded by Prince Mikhail Barclay de Tolly.Napoleon had received reinforcements from France, including a Young Guard division, four Old Guard battalions and two cavalry divisions, and also now had the support of the Saxon Army. He replaced the previous split of his force into separate Armies of the Elbe and Main with a single Army of the Elbe.[1]It consisted of two wings. The northern one under Marshal Michel Ney contained 79,500 infantry, 4,800 cavalry and 26 artillery batteries. The main body, under the Emperor’s personal command, consisted of 107,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry and 53 artillery batteries; 19,000 of the infantry and 4,000 of the cavalry were Guards.. His step-son Prince Eugène, who had performed poorly in this campaign, was sent to command in Italy.[2]Napoleon’s main problem was that his lack of cavalry meant that he was uncertain of the location and strength of the enemy. He deduced that the bulk of the Allied army would fall back on Bautzen, with a portion covering Berlin.On 12 May the Emperor sent forward a strong reconnaissance force under Marshal Jacques MacDonald in order to find the enemy. Ney’s wing was to prepare to move on Berlin.Diplomatic negotiations continued. Prince Klemens von Metternich, the Austrian Foreign Minister, offered to mediate, sending delegates to both sides in order to discover what they would offer Austria. Dominic Lieven points out that the Austrian aims of restoring their lost provinces and of restoring the balance of power in Europe were supported by Austria and Russia, but opposed by France.[3]Napoleon planned to send Armand Caulaincourt, one of his closest diplomatic advisers, to negotiate directly with Tsar Alexander rather than talking via Austria, but Caulaincourt had not departed by 16 May, when MacDonald discovered the enemy at Bautzen.The Emperor ordered IV (General Henri-Gatien Bertrand, VI (Marshal Auguste Marmont) and XI (MacDonald) Corps to pin the Allies whilst Marshal Charles Nicolas Oudinot’s XII Corps out-flanked them to the south. Ney was ordered to bring his own III Corps and General Jacques Lauriston’s V Corps south. His II and VII Corps were supposed to continue to advance on Berlin, but Ney misunderstood his orders and brought them south; F. Loraine Petre argues that this error was to the French advantage, as it meant that more troops were concentrated against the main enemy force.[4]Ney’s orders were complicated. On 18 May he was told to march on 20 May as if he were joining MacDonald, but on 21 May to move eastwards towards the enemy rear. Napoleon hoped that this would enable him to force the Allies back towards the neutral Austrian frontier, meaning that they would be either destroyed or forced to surrender.Napoleon spent 19 May reconnoitring the enemy. They were in a strong defensive position, but he overestimated their strength, thinking that they had 150,000 men rather than the actual 96,000.[5] As Ney was not in position, he decided to fight a battle of attrition on 20 May, before enveloping the enemy the next day. The Allies intended to stand on the defensive at first, before counter-attacking on their right. They expected the French to attack their left, in order to force them away from Austria.Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Battle_of_Bautzen_map.jpgSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Battle_of_Bautzen_map.jpg The French artillery bombardment began at noon on 20 May, with the main infantry attack starting at 3 pm. By 6 pm they had captured the city of Bautzen and the Allied front line. The Allies continued to reinforce their left. They knew that Ney was approaching from the north, but greatly underestimated his strength, so ignored him. David Chandler says that ‘Napoleon could hardly have hoped for anything better.’[6]Napoleon’s plan for 21 May was that VI, XI and XII Corps would pin the enemy, Ney’s III Corps would attack the Allied right and Lauriston’s V Corps would block their retreat. This should force them to strip their centre to strengthen their right flank.Bertrand’s IV Corps would deliver the main attack under the supervision of Marshal Nicolas Soult, who had carried out a similar manoeuvre on the Pratzen Heights at Austerlitz in 1805. A reserve consisting of three infantry divisions, one of them Old Guard and the others Young Guard, and three cavalry division, including a Guard one, supported by 80 guns was established.The pinning attacks were successful. Oudinot’s XII Corps was forced back a little way, but this drew the Allies out of their prepared positions. IV Corps began its attack at 2 pm, supported by a Young Guard division and all available artillery. Prince Gebhard von Blücher’s Prussians were forced back, but he skilfully extracted them. The French attack lost momentum because the terrain made it difficult to move the artillery forwardThe only explicit order given by Napoleon to Ney was that he should be at the village of Preititz by 11 am. His chief of staff, Baron Antoine-Henri Jomini, advised him to screen it and advance into the enemy rear, but Ney launched a series of frontal attacks. Lauriston also moved slowly.The French attacks in the centre was held up until by a gallant Russian defence, but increasing casualties induced the Tsar to allow limited withdrawals from 4 pm. Napoleon, noting that the enemy resistance was weakening, committed his Imperial Guard against the Prussians.The Allies were now forced to retreat, but Ney and Lauriston’s failure to advance into their rear meant that they were able to do so safely, extracting all their guns, apart from some that had been disabled. A heavy rain storm stopped any pursuit.Napoleon had again won a battle, but failed to rout the enemy because of the failure of his subordinates to block the enemy retreat and a lack of cavalry to pursue the defeated foe. Both sides suffered about 20,000 men dead and wounded.

Prussia's Army

Oct 18, 1813

Positive effect, because prussia's army being revisied allowing men to be trained and let go, then to be called upon to fight allowed Prussia to win many wars

Prussia's Army

Oct 18, 1813

Prussian Armyl April l8l3 1st Corps: General der Kavallerie von BlücherChief of staff: Generallieutenant von ScharnhorstQuartermaster General: Generalmajor von GneisenauAdjutant to C-in-C: Major Graf von GlozBrandenburg Brigade: Generalmajor and Generaladjudant von RöderBrigade: Colonel von Tippelskirch1/Garde zu Fuss (805)2/Garde zu Fuss (805)3/Garde zu Fuss (805)Normal Infanterie Batailon (805)von Wedell Freiwilliger Jäger Battalion (500)Garde Jäger Battalion (805)Leib Grenadier Battalion (805)1st East Prussian Grenadier Battalion (805)3/Leib Infantry Regiment (805)Brigade: Oberst von Katzeler1/,2/,Brandenburg Hussars (2)(300)1/,2/,Brandenburg Uhlans (2)(300)1/,2/,3/,4/West Prussian Uhlans (4)(60l)Artillery:Guard Foot Battery #4 (278)6pdr Foot Battery #9 Von Grevenitz (148)6pdr Horse Battery #8Lower Silesian Brigade: Oberst und Flugeladjudant von KlüxBrigade: Major von Jagow2/1st West Prussian Infantry Regiment (805)3/1st West Prussian Infantry Regiment (805)Fus/1st West Prussian Infantry Regiment (805)2/2nd West Prussian Infantry Regiment (805)3/2nd West Prussian Infantry Regiment (805)Brigade: Oberst von Mutius1/,2/,3/,4/Neumärk Dragoons (4)(60l)2/,4/1st West Prussian Dragoons (2)(300)Artillery:6pdr Foot Battery #7 (278)6pdr Horse Battery #7 (148)Upper Silesian Brigade: Generalmajor von ZiethenBrigade: Oberst von Pirch ISilesian Grenadier Battalion (805)1/1st Silesian Infantry Regiment (805)3/1st Silesian Infantry Regiment (805)Fus/1st Silesian Infantry Regiment (805)1/2nd Silesian Infantry Regiment (805)3/2nd Silesian Infantry Regiment (805)Silesian Schützen Battalion (805)Brigade: Major Laroche von Starkenfels1/,2/Silesian Uhlan Regiment (2)(300)Combined Silesian Hussar Regiment (4)(60l)2/,4/1st Silesian Hussar Regiment3/,4/2nd Silesian Hussar Regiment

Prussia's Army

Oct 18, 1813

It has been suggested that this article be merged into Prussian Army. (Discuss) Proposed since June 2010. A standard of the Prussian Army used before 1807.The Royal Prussian Army was the principal armed force of the Kingdom of Prussia during its participation in the Napoleonic Wars.Frederick the Great's successor, his nephew Frederick William II (1786–97), relaxed conditions in Prussia and had little interest in war. He delegated responsibility to the aged Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick, and the army began to degrade in quality. Led by veterans of the Silesian Wars, the Prussian Army was ill-equipped to deal with Revolutionary France. The officers retained the same training, tactics, and weaponry used by Frederick the Great some forty years earlier.[1] In comparison, the revolutionary army of France, especially under Napoleon Bonaparte, was developing new methods of organization, supply, mobility, and command.[2]Prussia withdrew from the First Coalition in the Peace of Basel (1795), ceding the Rhenish territories to France. Upon Frederick William II's death in 1797, the state was bankrupt and the army outdated

Prussia's Army

Oct 18, 1813

In 1813 when Prussia made ready to fight in war, a massive reform was done to prevent a disaster such as 1806 in Jena&Austerlitz. Half of the army consisted of hastily trained patriotic volunteers. There were musketeers and 12 Lb'er Artillery. Cavalry consisted of Hussars, Dragoons, and finally Lancers (Uhlans) and the National Garde. The national guard is basically rich landwehr cavalry. I plan on writing more about it but for now I will post some less common illustrations. Feel free to add to the research I want to start. Past the 15th or so regiment the infantry becomes reserve and wears a less fashionable uniform.For a complete overview, and since I'm lazy check here for pictures and sources http://befreiungskriege.wordpress.com/prussian-army-resources/

Congress Of Vienna

Jun 8, 1815

http://ts2.mm.bing.net/th?id=H.4649599649187821&w=271&h=182&c=7&rs=1&pid=1.7

Congress Of Vienna

Jun 8, 1815

http://ts4.mm.bing.net/th?id=H.4917463846945987&w=228&h=169&c=7&rs=1&pid=1.7

Congress Of Vienna

Jun 8, 1815

As agreed at the first Treaty of Paris in 1814, a congress of the Great Powers of Europe met at Vienna to settle the future boundaries of the continent. Almost every state in Europe was represented. The emperors of Austria and Russia, the kings of Prussia, Denmark, Bavaria and Württemberg and many German princes including the Elector of Hesse, the Grand Duke of Baden and the dukes of Saxe-Weimar, Brunswick and Coburg, attended in person. The Congress•adopted a fair policy of no great rewards and no great punishments•gave a balanced settlement which ensured no major conflict for forty years (the Crimean War, 1854-6) and then until 1914•included France, as represented by Talleyrand •was still generous to the defeated France, so as not to give rise to French feelings of revenge•adopted a policy to restore the status quo ante bellum [the situation as it was before the war] — a return to 1793 as far as possible. This was perhaps rather short-sighted and regressive although the policy-makers were working within their knowledge and did not have second sight to foretell the future. The French Revolution had liberated new forces of democracy and patriotic nationalism throughout Europe. The diplomats represented the crowned heads of Europe and paid little heed to either of these forces•restored monarchies across Europe•ignored demands for greater democracy and nationalism; this led to the majority of conflicts in the Nineteenth Century, between and within countries •Lord Liverpool's government (1812-27) was determined not to allow reform in Britain•1848 Liberal Nationalist revolutions throughout Europe•Sarajevo in June 1914•the restored monarchies were troubled by nationalist reformers wanting democracyThe principal negotiators were: Austria Metternich Prussia Hardenberg and von Humbolt Russia Nesselrode and Rasoumoffski Great Britain Castlereagh, and later, Wellington France Talleyrand and Dalberg Although interrupted by the ‘Hundred Days’ and troubled by rivalries, the Congress achieved a settlement which remained in force in much of central and eastern Europe until the First World War. This link will take you to a map of Europe in 1815. The main provisions of the Congress were: Great Britain retained •Malta•Heligoland•the protectorate of the Ionian Isles (the latter by a treaty signed 5 November 1815)•Mauritius, Tobago and Santa Lucia from France• Ceylon and the Cape of Good Hope from Holland•Trinidad from Spain.Prussia •In Germany, Prussia received half of Saxony, the Grand Duchy of Berg, part of the Duchy of Westphalia, and territory on the left bank of the Rhine between Elken and Coblenz, including Cologne, Trèves, and Aix-la-Chapelle. Prussia also received Swedish Pomerania and the King of Prussia was recognised as Prince of Neuchatel•In Poland, Prussia retained the territory gained in the previous partitions, the province of Posen, and the cities of Danzig and ThornAustria•In Italy, Austria received Venetia, Lombardy and Milan, the Illyrian provinces (Carinthia, Carniola and Trieste), Dalmatia, and the seaport of Cattaro (now the kingdoms lllyria and Dalmatia)•In Poland, Austria kept eastern Galicia, with Krakow made a free city•In Germany, Austria received the Tyrol and SalzburgThe German states•By the act of Confederation, signed 8 June 1815, and supplemented by the final act of Vienna, 15 May 1820, a German Confederacy was set up to replace the old Holy Roman Empire. The number of German states was reduced from over 300 to 39. A Diet was established under the Presidency of Austria, to which states were to send delegates. The Diet consisted of the Ordinary Assembly sitting permanently at Frankfurt and a General Assembly. Each state was to be independent in internal affairs, but war between the individual states was forbidden and the consent of the Confederacy was necessary for foreign war•Bavaria received Rhenish Bavaria, extending from the Prussian territory on the Rhine to Alsace, including the city of Mainz•Hanover became a kingdom and received East Frisia and Hildesheim.Russia•In Poland, Russia received the greater part of the grand duchy of Warsaw which was to be made into a separate kingdom of Poland. Krakow became a free city state under the protection of Russia, Austria and Prussia•Russia retained Finland, conquered from Sweden in 1808•Russia retained Bessarabia, taken from Turkey in 1812Italy•Ferdinand IV was recognised as King of the Two Sicilies•The Pope received the Legation of Bologna and most of Ferrara, but was refused the restoration of Avignon. Tuscany was assigned to the Grand Duke Ferdinand, uncle of the Emperor Francis; Modena to the Archduke Francois d’Este, another Habsburg prince•Parma, Piacenza and Guastella were granted to the Empress Marie Louise for life•Genoa was given to the Kingdom of SardiniaLow CountriesThe formation of the kingdom of the Netherlands was ratified, comprising the former republic of Holland and Austrian Belgium, under the former hereditary Stadtholder as King William I. The sovereignty of the Netherlands was given to the House of Orange, and the King of the Netherlands was made Grand Duke of Luxembourg, making him a member of the German ConfederationSwitzerlandThe 19 existing cantons were increased to 22 by the addition of Geneva, Wallis, and Neuchatel. Switzerland became a confederation of independent cantons with its neutrality guaranteed by the Great PowersSweden and DenmarkSweden retained Norway which had been ceded to her by Denmark at the Peace of Kiel (14 January 1814). The Norwegians were guaranteed the possession of their Liberties and rights. Denmark was indemnified with LauenburgSpain and Portugal•Spain lost Trinidad•Portugal lost Guiana to FranceFrance•Apart from the provisions of the second Treaty of Paris, France received French Guiana from Portugal, Guadeloupe from Sweden, and Martinique and the Isle of Bourbon from Great BritainThe slave tradeIn February 1815, the Congress condemned the slave trade as inconsistent with civilisation and human rights.Comment•the confederation of German states and the redivision of Italy led to Nineteenth Century unification activity — Italy under Garibaldi and Cavour, Prussia under Bismarck•the buffer state of the Netherlands did not last long. The Belgians removed Dutch control over their country in 1830.•Britain appeared to acquire minimal advantages in the settlement, given that she had spent £600 million on the wars. She got no land in Europe, but Britain did gain colonial strength which helped her trade and commerce. Britain became THE European colonial power•liberalism and nationalism in Europe was halted, temporarily. It was not crushed•Russia entered western Europe as a major power and from 1815 onwards played a regular and important part in European diplomacy. Russia had gained the Duchy of Warsaw and Finland at Vienna - hence the unification of Norway and Sweden under Bernadotte, as Charles XIV. This union was terminated only in 1905•The Congress of Vienna was seen as the first of a series of Congresses which have been labelled as the "Congress System" although it was never a system. Diplomats felt that they should 'stick together' in peacetime to preserve the peace. It was a "gentlemen's agreement" - verbal, and there was no constitution; it was decided that when and where conflict could lead to international war, a congress would meet to talk it out first. •1815 Congress of Vienna•1818 Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle•1820 Congress of Troppau•1821 Congress of Laibach•1822 Congress of VeronaThese were the early origins of international co-operation

Congress Of Vienna

Jun 8, 1815

Vienna, Congress of, Sept., 1814–June, 1815, one of the most important international conferences in European history, called to remake Europe after the downfall of Napoleon I. Congress ParticipantsThe Austrian emperor Francis I (formerly Holy Roman Emperor Francis II) was the host. Among the many monarchs to attend the congress the most important were Czar Alexander I of Russia and King Frederick William III of Prussia. Fürst von Metternich was the chief Austrian negotiator and presided over the congress; Viscount Castlereagh and, for a time, the duke of Wellington represented Great Britain; the Russian delegation included Count Nesselrode, Count Capo d'Istria, and Carlo Andreo Pozzo di Borgo; among the Prussian diplomats were Karl August von Hardenberg, Wilhelm von Humboldt, and Karl vom und zum Stein.A peace settlement with defeated France had been reached before the congress convened (see Paris, Treaty of, 1814), but France was represented by Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, who, by skillfully exploiting differences among the allies, soon obtained an equal voice with the four great victorious powers. All other European states, large and petty, that had legally existed before the Napoleonic upheaval were represented by an army of delegates and agents, but the important work was carried out in committees under the tutelage of the major powers.IssuesThe problems confronting the congress were extremely thorny and complex, for the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars had swept away the entire structure of Europe. Although the principle of legitimacy—restoration of the pre-Revolutionary dynastic and territorial states—was often ceremoniously invoked, it was the determination to achieve a balance of power for the preservation of peace that guided congress decisions. The principle of national self-determination, although invoked in certain cases, was neglected in practice. The congress opened with a round of magnificent balls and entertainments, while its serious business was stalled by intrigues and rivalries.Territorial AdjustmentsMajor territorial changes were unavoidable, partly because of previous secret agreements reached among individual allies and partly because of the pressure of power politics. Major points of friction were the settlement of the Polish question, the conflicting claims of Sweden, Denmark, and Russia, and the adjustment of the borders of the German states. Russia and Prussia were generally opposed by Austria, France, and Britain, which at one point (Jan., 1815) went so far as to conclude a defensive triple alliance. The shock of this crisis and of the return of Napoleon I from Elba so upset the delegates that the congress began to find solutions for its many difficulties.In place of the defunct Holy Roman Empire or its several hundred princes, the German Confederation was created. The Confederation's constitution was accepted on June 8, 1815, and was incorporated into the Final Act of the congress, signed on June 9, nine days before Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo. The restoration of Louis XVIII in France and of Ferdinand VII in Spain was confirmed.Italy was dealt with as a geographic rather than a political entity, and its hopes for unity were dashed. Naples and Sicily were reunited under Bourbon rule; the Papal States were restored; the duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla were awarded to French Empress Marie Louise for her lifetime; Tuscany and Modena were restored to the house of Hapsburg-Lorraine; the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom was set up under Austrian rule to compensate Austria for its loss of the Austrian Netherlands; and the formerly Venetian part of Dalmatia also went to Austria. The kingdom of Sardinia was restored and recovered Savoy, Nice, and Piedmont, and it received Liguria with Genoa.Poland was redivided among Russia, Prussia, and Austria, with Russia benefiting primarily; part of Poland, with Warsaw, was set up as a kingdom in personal union with Russia; Kraków and its surrounding territory were made a republic under the protection of Russia, Austria, and Prussia. Since Austria received Italian territories to compensate for Russian gains, Prussia was awarded much of Saxony as well as important parts of Westphalia and Rhine Province. Great Britain, more interested in acquiring strategic colonial territories, retained the former Dutch colonies of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Cape Colony, received parts of the West Indies at the expense of the Netherlands and Spain, kept Malta and Helgoland, and obtained a protectorate over the Ionian islands.The former Austrian Netherlands was united with the former United Provinces as the kingdom of the Netherlands, under the house of Orange. Russia retained the formerly Swedish Finland. The congress confirmed the transfer of Norway from the Danish to the Swedish crown; W Pomerania, the claim to which Sweden had ceded to Denmark in the Treaty of Kiel (1814), was given to Prussia, which compensated Denmark with the duchy of Lauenburg. Bavaria received its approximate present-day boundaries, as did Württemberg and Baden. Switzerland was enlarged, and Swiss neutrality was guaranteed. As regards France, a new peace settlement was reached on Nov. 20, 1815 (see Paris, Treaty of, 1815). The Final Act of Vienna was subsequently ratified by the powers concerned, but several separate treaties were required to complete the settlement.ConsequencesAlthough the territorial changes brought about by the Congress of Vienna did not endure long in entirety, they represented a practical if not always equitable solution and an attempt at dealing with Europe as an organic whole. The Quadruple Alliance and the Holy Alliance, designed to uphold the decisions of Vienna and to settle disputes and problems by means of conferences, were an important step toward European cooperation. The Concert of Europe, which functioned—even though imperfectly—through the 19th cent., may be credited to the Congress of Vienna.An auxiliary accomplishment of the Congress was the adoption of standard rules of diplomacy. Serious defects, however, included the disregard of the growing national aspirations and the social changes that brought about the revolutions of 1848, and the failure to include the Ottoman Empire in the settlement and to deal satisfactorily with the Eastern Question.BibliographySee H. Nicolson, The Congress of Vienna (1946, repr. 1970); H. Kissinger, A World Restored (1957, repr. 1964); H. Spiel, ed., The Congress of Vienna: An Eyewitness Account (1968).

Congress Of Vienna

Jun 8, 1815

The Congress of Vienna was opened on October 1, 1814, following the fall of Napoleon Bonaparte’s Grand Armeé and his abdication earlier in that year. All European states were summoned to the congress, which was meant to "bring back the old times" to Europe, the times previous to the French revolution of 1789 and the Napoleonic Wars that followed. There has been much debate among historians on whether the Vienna Settlement which resulted actually managed to address and solve the problems that Europe faced in a post-Napoleonic era. There were four principles, which were meant to ‘guide’ the decisions and changes that the Vienna Settlement brought about. They were; restoring the balance of power, the containment of France, the restoration of legitimate rulers and rewarding and punishing those involved in the Napoleonic Wars, depending on which side they had fought on. Before trying to analyze whether or not the Vienna Settlement solved "the problems of Europe", it would be good to point out that that was not its genuine intention. Europe’s problems were really the problems of its rulers, and yes, those with enough influence could do something about it. The Vienna Congress set out to follow the four principles mentioned previously, and so it would be good to analyze and discuss to what extent these four principles/objectives were met in the settlement. The borders of pre-Napoleonic Europe were more or less restored (those that weren’t fall mostly under the ‘Containment of France’ and ‘Rewards & Punishment’ principles), the same can be said for the Restoration of Balance to the credit of the Vienna Settlement. This was largely because the victorious side of the Napoleonic Wars pursued their national interests to a considerable extent. All the Great Powers did agree, that an effective balance of power needed to be constructed, but how to go about doing it, that was where their opinions and ideas differed. It was problematic, however, as France needed to be contained, and with the Holy Roman Empire dissolved and replaced by small, weaker German states, Prussia seemed the natural candidate to be strengthened. Prussia sought to expand on Saxony’s expense, and Austria was worried about this. The Russians were also bent on expanding considerably on Poland’s expense, which in British eyes threatened Peace. It was the French representative, Talleyrand, who negotiated a secret deal with the British and the Austrians, that they would mutually counter the possible threat posed by Prussia and Russia. Eventually, both Russian and Prussia were willing to give up some of their demands for land, and the situation was solved. Balance was, more or less, restored to Europe, as even France came off fairly lightly and was not humiliated with enormous economic and military sanctions like Germany was after the First World War. Containment of France was one of the issues on the agenda, as no European leader wanted to see French armies marching victoriously through Europe once more. The intention was to create a defensive belt around France to discourage future French aggression. This was done by strengthening the states and territories surrounding France, especially those which had been previously over-run by the Grand Armeé. This was done by allocating the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) to Holland, a German Confederation (virtually headed by Prussia & Austria) was created mainly for defensive purposes to replace the Holy Roman Empire, Genoa was given to Piedmont, along with some other Italian states, and Austrian influence was extended to much of Northern and Central Italy by putting Austrian Hapsburg royalty on the thrones. The war reparations paid by France were rather miniscule, compared to those imposed by another, infamous, peace treaty a hundred years later. This was were the statesmen of the Allies, Castlereagh in particular, showed their ability. France would not become a vengeful, ever-threatening nation that had to be watched continuously, but in time she would become an ally and trusted partner in European affairs. In this manner France was, in effect contained, and there has been no major French expansion in Europe after the Vienna Settlement. The rift that emerged during the conference among the four major allies against Napoleon gave Talleyrand the chance to assert French influence in the congress, and he was able to exploit the rift to become an equal member of the congress system soon after. The restoration of legitimate rulers is one of the more unclear principles. It became quite evident, that this principle was applied only when it suited the interests of the Great Powers. The Bourbons of France were replaced, as was advocated by Talleyrand, and this suited the other Great Powers. The restoration of the Bourbon dynasty of Spain, an ally to the Great Powers against Napoleon, only seemed natural. Likewise, the Hapsburg princes and princesses were restored in Central Italy to keep the region under Austrian influence, as discussed earlier. However, the Legitimate monarch in Saxony was forced to give up two-fifths of his territory to please Prussian demands, which clearly goes against the principle of legitimacy advocated by the Great Powers at the Congress of Vienna. This would suggest, that this principle was not taken very seriously by the major powers, nor was it deemed very important, especially when it concerned minor states. The principle of handing out Reward and Punishment to the different powers would seem to have been more of a matter of ‘compensation’ to those powers that gave up territory or gained territory in order to construct the afore mentioned ‘defensive belt’ around France. For example, Austria gained influence and territory in Italy, after the previously Austrian-owned Belgium was incorporated into Holland. Prussia also gained impressive amounts of territory in order to strengthen central Europe against French aggression. Of course, some of this had nothing to do with France, and examples of genuine "rewards" would be the territories gained by Russia in the east. The Great Powers agreed that Russia would keep Finland, although it had been conquered in league with Napoleon, and Russia would also be able to keep large parts of Poland. Norway (Danish) was given to Sweden to compensate for the loss of Finland, and to punish Denmark for remaining allied to Napoleon for too long. Now, it would seem that, for the most part, the four principles were followed, and they achieved the objectives they sought to achieve. Also, none of the Great Powers engaged in major hostilities in the next 40 years, and stability was more or less preserved in Europe. In that sense, the Congress of Vienna managed to address and solve the problems the Great Powers had set for themselves. However, the question arises, were they the only problems 19th century Europe faced? The complete lack of regard for the new forces of change in 19th century Europe meant that the 19th century would see its share of civil unrest and revolutions. Borders were still being drawn heavy-handedly, ignoring completely the wishes of the local populations and their ethnicity. No attempt was made to draw the new borders around more ‘ethnically natural’ frontiers, which caused problems with the rise of Nationalism and Liberalism. The Congress System, as short-lived as it was, failed largely because of this. Of the European leaders, especially Metternich showed complete disregard towards the forces of change, and did his best to suppress them. In conclusion, the Congress and Settlement of Vienna managed to control and discourage war between the Great Powers in Europe for much of the 19th Century. They also managed to restore the balance of power to effectively build a peaceful Europe which was as it had been before Napoleon, as was their intention. Their refusal to acknowledge that times were changing and that there were new forces to be reckoned with and respected, they failed to build a very stable and pleasant Europe. The Great Powers might not have been aware of the potency of such forces as Nationalism or Liberalism, or they, as Metternich, thought that any attempt compromise with them would only strengthen those forces and lead to nothing but ruin. In the end, however, I would see this as about as good as one can expect with leaders from the ‘old age’ trying to solve problems of a ‘new age’ the old way. When comparing the Settlement of Vienna and its aftermath to the Treaty of Versailles and its aftermath, it becomes clear which one solved the problems that mattered.

Congres of Vienna

Jun 8, 1815

Congress of ViennaWHAT WERE THE GOALS OF THE MAJOR POWERS AT THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA? HOW REALISTIC WERE THE GOALS? HOW WELL DID THEY MEET THEM? 1. The Balance of Power 2. The Status quo 3. The Dual Revolutions 4. The Revolution of 1830 The Congress of Vienna was convened in 1815 by the four European powers which had defeated Napoleon. The first goal was to establish a new balance of power in Europe which would prevent imperialism within Europe, such as the Napoleonic empire, and maintain the peace between the great powers. The second goal was to prevent political revolutions, such as the French Revolution, and maintain the status quo. Disagreement between Russia and Prussia on the one hand and Britain and Austria on the other about boundary provisions in Eastern Europe led to a threat of renewed hostilities. The new French government, under the restored Bourbon dynasty in the person of King Louis XVIII, was enlisted as an ally by the British. France was invited to send a representative to the Congress of Vienna and was, thereafter, involved as the fifth great power of the Grand Alliance. Agreement was reached avoiding war. Prussian boundaries were expanded westward to confront the French with a greater power on their eastern border. The Kingdom of the Netherlands, which included both Holland and Belgium, was created for the same reason. When that arrangement collapsed and an independent Belgium was recognized, the great powers accomplished their objectives by signing a treaty among themselves in 1837, which guaranteed the neutrality of Belgium and Holland. This treaty remained in effect until 1914. There was not another European-wide war for a century. When Germany marched into Belgium in 1914, thus violating the neutrality of the Lowlands, the First World War began. There were, however, other conflicts in the nineteenth century, such as the Crimean War, the Franco-Austrian War, the Austro-Prussian War, and the Franco-Prussian War. But these were limited by both time and geography, and did not involve all of the great powers. The second goal, to restore "legitimate" or traditional governments to power and to prevent political revolutions, or to maintain the status quo met with partial success in the short term, but was bound to fail in the long term because it opposed the irresistable forces of historical change resulting from modernization. Those irresistable forces took the form of the dual revolutions of liberalism and nationalism. THE DUAL REVOLUTIONS: The historian, Hobsbawm, writes of two revolutions that were occurring throughout the 19th century. They were: 1. The Industrial Revolution, a fundamental change in economic circumstances which caused profound political and social change. 2. Political revolutions which involve one or a combination of both of the following: (1) LIBERALISM, meaning the drive to achieve equality of opportunity which motivated the revolutionary leadership in the English, American, and French Revolutions. and ( 2) NATIONALISM, meaning the drive to achieve national unity, replacing systems of the old regime, based exclusively upon the aristocracy, with systems of government based on mass support by people from all classes of the society. The ruler/subject relationship was to be replaced by the citizen relationship. In 1821, revolutions in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and in Spain were thrown back through intervention by Austrian and French armies respectively. However, revolution in Greece against Ottoman rule was, after a difficult 8 year struggle, successful in achieving Greek independence. The Europeans did not support the Turks because they were of a different, non-Christian civilization, while the Greeks were identified with the classical heritage of Europe.. Following a Turkish massacre of 100,000 Greeks, the great powers intervened against Turkey. Revolution in South and Central America against Spanish rule also succeeded, because of the oceanic separation and the refusal of the British to support European intervention. Without the British navy, it would have been foolhardy to attempt intervention. The British put their national interests (trade with the newly independent nations) before their adherence to the international principle of intervention. Political autonomy in Polish areas of the Russian Empire was initially encouraged by the Tsar Alexander I. When, by 1830, the Polish moved farther in the exercise of local autonomy than the Tsar would permit, their independence movement was crushed by the Russian army. Belgian people in the Kingdom of the Netherlands resented Dutch discrimination against them and rose up in a struggle for independence in 1829. The French refused to intervene. In 1837, the great powers recognized the independence of Belgium and accomplished a continuing restraint of French expansion by agreeing to a treaty guaranteeing the neutrality of the Netherlands and Belgium. THE REVOLUTION OF 1830 . The overthrow of King Charles X in France in 1830 was not opposed by the great powers. The king had adopted a reactionary policy which sought to undermine fundamental changes wrought by the French Revolution, to wit: to restore the aristocracy to exclusive rule. This was unrealistic, and provoked unified opposition by the middle and working classes. The king fled into exile, and the Assembly invited a new monarch to the throne: King Louis Phillippe of the Orleans family. Though the workers had joined in the rebellion they gained nothing from it. The Assembly was dominated by middle class elements. There were high property qualifications for voting or holding elected office. The Revolution of 1830 was not truly a revolution. It was merely a coup d'etat, which preserved the political power of the upper middle class, which they had achieved as a result of the French Revolution.

Congress Of Vienna

Jun 8, 1815

SignificanceThe Congress of Vienna (Wiener Kongress) was one of the most significant international political summits in Europe. It also helped Vienna balls and waltz dancing rise to international fame. For 10 months, Vienna became the center of the world. In political significance, I would compare the congress to the Conference of Jalta towards the end of the Second World War. On a positive note, the Vienna Congress managed to re-concile the multiple conflicts of interest between the European powers and create a period of almost 40 years without major European wide conflicts. On a negative note, the summit resulted in a deliberate step back in history: Congress of Vienna, Austria; painting attributed to Jean Baptiste Isabey The Congress of Vienna was going against the French Revolution and all its democratic, egalitarian and liberal ideals. In a way, it therefore kick started the Pre-March Period (Vormärz) which eventually led to the revolution in March 1848.On a more mundane note, the Congress of Vienna was a cultural Olympiad without comparison. For ten months, Vienna entertained more than 200 delegates from all over Europe with a marathon cultural calendar consisting of daily balls and society events to cater to the vanities and emotional well being of its top guests. The explosive mixture of politics, diplomacy and love has been featured in an engaging way in many historical publications and films. the Wiener Kongress played a pivotal role in anchoring Vienna's image as a society of Vienna waltz dancing, cake eating bohemiens who love life and women, and who use their culture to outwit their European fellows. Prince Charles de Ligne's famous words:

Congress of Vienna

Jun 8, 1815

Congress Of Vienna

Jun 8, 1815

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Congress Of Vienna

Jun 8, 1815

(1814–15) Assembly that reorganized Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. The powers of the Quadruple Alliance had concluded the Treaty of Chaumont just before Napoleon's first abdication and agreed to meet later in Vienna. There they were joined by Bourbon France as a major participant and by Sweden and Portugal; many minor states also sent representatives. The principal negotiators were Klemens, prince von Metternich, representing Francis II (Austria); Alexander I (Russia); Frederick William III and Karl August, prince von Hardenberg (Prussia); Viscount Castlereagh (Britain); and Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand (France). The Congress reduced France to its 1789 borders. A new kingdom of Poland, under Russian sovereignty, was established. To check possible future aggression by France, its neighbours were strengthened: the kingdom of The Netherlands acquired Belgium, Prussia gained territory along the Rhine River, and the Italian kingdom acquired Genoa. The German states were joined loosely in a new German Confederation, subject to Austria's influence. For its part in the defeat of Napoleon, Britain acquired valuable colonies, including Malta, the Cape of Good Hope, and Ceylon. The Vienna settlement was the most comprehensive treaty that Europe had ever seen, and the configuration of Europe established at the congress lasted for more than 40 years.

Zollverien

Oct 27, 1834

(German: “Customs Union”) Free-trade area throughout much of Germany established in 1834 under Prussian leadership. The customs union developed from the 1818 Prussian tariff law that abolished internal customs dues and the customs union set up in 1828 in southern Germany by Bavaria and Württemberg. By 1834 other German states had joined, for a total of 18 members; more joined in subsequent years. The Zollverein represented an important step in German unification. See also Friedrich List.

Zollverien

Oct 27, 1834

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Zollverein

Oct 27, 1834

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Zollverien

Oct 27, 1834

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Zollverien

Oct 27, 1834

Zollverein Founded in 1834, the Zollverein (Deutscher Zollverein or German Customs Union) had been renewed in 1841 for a term ending December 31, 1853. By 1848 its revenues had steadily increased, and it included most German states, the major exceptions being Austria and those of north-west Germany. Prussia had succeeded to win the full cooperation of the revenue services of the participating states to the extent that theZollverein machinery was not seriously affected by the events of 1848-49. Moreover, the Zollverein had neither a centralized bureaucracy nor a national public forum that could have become the target of a revolutionary thrust. The budding attempts to make the Zollverein responsive to popular interest in the period before the 1848 revolutions (Vormärz), such as the Heppenheim program of October 1847 whose program included a call for a customs union parliament, were swept away by the revolutionary surge that sought the solution of the German customs problem within the framework of the new constitution for the proposed Reich. Thus the National Assembly at Frankfurt became the forum for customs policy; but debates were hampered by the hitherto unresolved struggle between the free trade and protectionist forces, and its decision for a nationwide customs system remained a hollow achievement, as the constitution it adopted was kleindeutsch in nature (like the Zollverein) and was abortive to boot. One of the members of the Frankfurt parliament working on the problems was the Austrian businessman Karl Ludwig Bruck, who became Austrian minister of commerce in the fall of 1848 and as such proposed a year later that Austria (including Hungary), the Zollverein, and the north-west German states to be joined into a custom union. To facilitate such an arrangement, Austria was to undertake major reforms, in particular to remove the custom line between Austria and Hungary, to abolish its trade prohibitions, and to revise its tariff. Bruck had with this proposal the modernization of the Austrian economy in mind, but his plan also supported his government's policy of diminishing Prussia's leadership role in Germany. Bruck found an equally astute opponent in Rudolf Delbruck of the Prussian ministry of commerce. Delbruck stonewalled the Austrian proposal, which had obtained a favorable reactions in the south German capitals, and proceeded to persuade Hanover in the fall of 1851 to join the Zollverein by offering extraordinary fiscal and other concessions. This coup drove the south German states back into the arms of the Zollverein, which was duly renewed for a twelve-year period starting January 1, 1854. In some respect it may appear that the Zollverein emerged structurally more cohesive from the revolutionary period; certainly Prussia's leadership role had been enhanced. Yet the Vörmarz movements for popular participation in trade policy died with the revolution. Also the member governments declined in stature, as Prussia pointedly preempted the decision-making process by entering into unilateral trade agreements with other countries (such as France in 1862) leaving the other Zollverein states no choice but to go along. The Austrian bid for union with the Zollverein resulted in greater economic cooperation, but it also polarized the two German powers over the Zollverein issue by heightening Prussian awareness of its kleindeutsch stake. The Zollverein remained a highly efficient fiscal tool, but its structure became increasingly less suitable for developing a trade policy commensurate with the growing industrialization of Germany. Arnold Price

Zollverien

Oct 27, 1834

The Zollverein is the German Customs Union that created a free-trade area in Germany. It was established in 1834 helped reunite the country. The Zollverein expanded between 1820 and 1866 and included much Germany, which included 425,000 square kilometers of area. The Customs Union allowed the trading of farm and craft products, as well as financial wellness in Germany. It protected the country from the French influence during this time as well. Despite the fact that the Zollverein encouraged trade among the members of the union, it also served as a barricade of trade between the Union and other countries. It is said that the Zollverein was created to eliminate Austrian influence and to improve the economy of the country and its people.

Zollverien

Oct 27, 1834

The Zollverein, or German Customs Union, was a coalition of German states formed to manage customs and economic policies within their territories. Established in 1818, the original union cemented economic ties between the various Prussian and Hohenzollern territories, and ensured economic contact between the non-contiguous holdings of the Hohenzollern family, which was also the ruling family of Prussia. It expanded between 1820 to 1866 to include most of the German states. Austria was excluded because of its highly protected industry; this economic exclusion exacerbated the Austro-Prussian rivalry for dominance in central Europe, particularly in the 1850s and 1860s. With the founding of the North German Confederation in 1868, the Zollverein included approximately 425,000 square kilometres, and had produced economic agreements with non-German states like Sweden and Luxembourg.Beyond the economic consonance of Hohenzollern territories, the goal of the Customs Union was the generation of a domestic market for German-made products and the economic and commercial unification of member states under fiscally sound economic parameters. While the Union sought to limit trade and commercial barriers between and among member states, it continued to uphold the protectionist barriers with non-member states. The political strength of the Customs Union lay with the Prussians, whose promotion of the Little Germany solution of national political unification mirrored the Customs Union's economic solution. After the founding of the German Empire in 1871, the Empire assumed the control of the Union. Although not a state in the German Reich, Luxembourg belonged to the Union until 1919 as a German customs region.

Zollverien

Oct 27, 1834

Positive Effect, because this allowed people to become more economically advanced and allowed them to live better lives

Zollverien

Oct 27, 1834

Zollverein Zollverein (tsôlˈfərĪnˈ) [key] [Ger., = customs union], in German history, a customs union established to eliminate tariff barriers. Friedrich List first popularized the idea of a combination to abolish the customs barriers that were inhibiting trade among the numerous states of the German Confederation. In 1818, Prussia abolished internal customs and formed a North German Zollverein, which in 1834 became the German Zollverein after merging with two similar unions, the South German Zollverein and the Central German Trade Union, both founded in 1828. Customs barriers of member states were leveled, and a uniform tariff was instituted against non-members. The customs at foreign frontiers were collected on joint account, and the proceeds were distributed in proportion to the population and resources of the member states. A rival customs union, the Steuerverein of central Germany, was also organized in 1834. A series of treaties (1851–54) joined it to the Zollverein, which then comprised nearly all the German states except Austria, the two Mecklenburgs, and the Hanseatic towns. Prussia, despite the insistence of several states, was unwilling to admit Austria to the union, but the two countries negotiated a separate tariff treaty. After the Austro-Prussian War (1866) a new agreement was reached by the members of the union. The newly formed North German Confederation entered the Zollverein in a body, and the other German states also negotiated customs treaties with victorious Prussia. The constitution (1867) of the new Zollverein provided for a federal council of customs ( Zollbundesrat ), comprised of personal representatives of the several rulers, and for an elected customs parliament ( Zollparlament ). In both bodies Prussia exercised predominant influence. In 1871 the laws and regulations of the Zollverein passed into the legislation of the newly created German Empire. Alsace-Lorraine entered the imperial customs area in 1872, and the Hanseatic cities joined in 1888. The Zollverein promoted the economic unification of Germany. Read more: Zollverein | Infoplease.com http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/history/zollverein.html#ixzz2jFem56Sx

Zollverien

Oct 27, 1834

Zollverein 0 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x Zollverein, a customs union of German states led by Prussia, 1819–71. (The word zoll means "duty," and verein, "union.") The union laid a foundation for establishing the German Empire in 1871.The Zollverein was created to eliminate custom duties between several states in the German Confederation so that these states would have free trade among themselves. Another purpose was to establish a unified tariff on goods imported from the rest of the world. Revenue was divided among the members according to their populations and resources. The Zollverein was enlarged in 1834 and 1867 and in 1871 was merged into the new German Empire.

Otto Von Bismarck

Apr 1, 1855

http://ts3.mm.bing.net/th?id=H.4668828229042722&w=114&h=185&c=7&rs=1&pid=1.7

Otto Von Bismarck

Apr 1, 1855

http://ts1.mm.bing.net/th?id=H.4950290285856444&w=146&h=186&c=7&rs=1&pid=1.7

Otto Von Bismarck

Apr 1, 1855

http://ts2.mm.bing.net/th?id=H.4975729355588597&w=169&h=186&c=7&rs=1&pid=1.7

Otto Von Bismarck

Apr 1, 1855

Bismarck, Otto von Bismarck, Otto von remains one of the most significant political figures of modern Germany. This stature derives from his contribution to the creation and shaping of the modern German state as Prussian minister president and imperial chancellor from 1862 to 1890. His activities and attitudes as parliamentary deputy during the revolution of 1848 generally are viewed as mere preludes to an eminent career. Yet there is little doubt that the experiences of the period helped to shape the thirty-three year old's political ideas and ambitions. The most significant of them may be summarized under three headings: (1) his general ideological orientat io n and political commitments; (2) his position on constitutional issues and representative government; and (3) his views on the place of Prussia in Germany and in Europe. Bismarck had entered politics in 1847 as an ultraconservative champion of Junker interests. When revolutions swept across Europe and reached Berlin the following year, his first impulse was to arm the peasants of his estate in defense of King and country. But two weeks later, in his first speech to the United Diet, he note d: " the past is buried...no human power can bring it back to life." Here was a clear expression of the "political realism" with which his name later became synonymous and which set him apart from his political friends of the reactionary Gerlach group: while they were principled and tradition-bound, Bismarck was pragmatic. What mattered to him were concrete interests and the power to defend or to satisfy them. To be sure, all the conservatives had a common political foe in the liberal and dem ocrati c forces of the revolution. And in March 1848, when Frederick William IV concluded an alliance of necessity with the former, they even contemplated an aristocratic counter-revolution to remove a king who had compromised the traditional order of their kingdom. More clearly than his allies, however, Bismarck saw liberalism as an expression of the political, economic, and social interests of the propertied urban class associated with industrialization. He countered it by raising the material interes ts of th e Junkers to the level of patriotic duty, justifying aristocratic privileges as a necessary basis for their continued service to the state which he considered the only real guarantee of the state's " lasting prosperity and power." On constitutional issues, Bismarck's position was similarly free of theoretical principles. Since politics as he saw it concerned interest representation, power and its distribution must of necessity serve the purpose. In the Spring of 1848, Bismarck was di smayed by the Crown's collaboration with the liberal opposition in creating a constitutional and representative political order. His response was not to fight change, but to oppose its liberal character. Thus Bismarck supported the establishment of a parliament, but advocated one based on estates or professional associations, with the power to influence but not rival the authority of the monarch. He was therefore adamantly opposed to the work of the Frankfurt Assembly as well as to constitutional chang es in Prussi a which threatened the kingdom's established political and social order. In the pursuit of his goals, Bismarck also became a modern politician who, like his opponents, began to mobilize popular support for his cause. In press campaigns, association meetings, and parliamentary speeches he appealed to the aspirations of peasants, craftsmen, and shopkeepers as if they were identical to the interests of his Junker constituents. In his responses to the so-called German question raised during the re volution, Bismarck developed ideas and arguments which also foreshadowed his later policies and actions. He never left anyone in doubt that he was a Prussian patriot, not a German nationalist. He rejected the Frankfurt Assembly's plan for unification because it would absorb Prussia into Germany; and he opposed the Radowitz plan because it would destroy the independence of the Prussian king. "Prussian we are and Prussian we wish to remain" he said in June 1848, explaining later that only P russia's interna l strength had overcome its revolutionaries and helped to protect Germany from its foreign enemies. Bismarck's view of Germany was based on territory rather than on language and culture. By 1849, it configured the national issue for him into one of the relative positions of Prussia and Austria in the old Reich. In the context of the falling Radowitz plan, the question became polarized around the alternatives of confrontation of cooperation. Although he had earlier urged a P russian policy of aggrandizement and primacy in Germany, Bismarck argued against a war and for cooperation with Austria on the basis of parity. Only self-interest, he explained, makes war a worthy cause for a major state. And neither the Radowitz scheme nor the quarrel over intervention in Hesse-Kassel involved such vital interests for the Hohenzollern state. His skillful defense of the Prussian Government's failed German policy in 1850 earned Bismarck his King's gratitude and an appointment to what wa s then Prussia's mos t important diplomatic post: envoy to the revived Confederation. J. H. Hoffman

Otto Von Bismarck

Apr 1, 1855

The battleship Bismarck was named in honour of Otto Fürst von Bismarck, the architect of German unification and the arbiter of European politics during the second half of the 19th century. Bismarck, also known as the "Iron Chancellor", was the founder and first chancellor of the German Empire, and through his diplomatic skills, he managed to maintain the peace in Europe for a generation. Early Life and Career. Otto von Bismarck was born on 1 April 1815 at Schönhausen in Brandenburg, Prussia. His father, Ferdinand von Bismarck-Schönhausen, was of the old Prussian nobility. His mother, Wilhelmine Mencken, from the upper bourgeoisie. He studied law at the University of Göttingen in Hanover, and obtained his degree in 1837. In 1847, he married Johanna von Puttkammer. During the revolutions of 1848, Bismarck favored suppression of revolt and opposed any concessions to the liberals, staying loyal to the monarchy. In 1849, he was elected to the Prussian Chamber of Deputies (the lower chamber of the Prussian Diet). In 1851, Frederick William IV appointed Bismarck as the Prussian representative to the federal Diet in Frankfurt. In 1859, Bismarck was sent to Russia as Prussian ambassador to St. Petersburg, and in May 1862, he moved to Paris as ambassador to the court of Napoleon III. Soon after he returned to Berlin, and on 22 September 1862, Bismarck became minister president and foreign minister for the Prussian king William I (Wilhelm I). German Unification. After a series of victorious wars against Denmark over Schleswig-holstein in 1864, and against Austria in 1866, the North German Confederation (Norddeustcher Bund) was formed in 1867 under Prussian control. Then in 1870, following the victorious conclusion of the Franco-Prussian war, Germany succeeded in obtaining Alsace and Lorraine. The German Empire was proclaimed at Versailles on 18 January 1871 by King William I as Emperor, and Bismarck was elevated to prince (Fürst) and imperial chancellor (Reichskanzler). Imperial Chancellor. As German chancellor, Bismarck directed his foreign policy at maintaining and strengthening the power of the German Empire. In order to prevent a war of revenge, Bismarck decided now to isolate France diplomatically. In 1873, he formed the Three Emperors' League (Dreikaiserbund) with Russia and Austria-Hungary. But rivalry in the Balkans provoked the Russo-Turkish War of 1877, and Bismarck had to mediate at the Congress of Berlin in 1878, successfully maintaining the peace. Increasing Russian hostility brought about the the Dual Alliance with Austria (1879), and then the Triple Alliance when Italy joined in 1882. Bismarck, however, sought to tie Russia to this alliance by reviving the Three Emperors' League (1881-87) through the Reinsurance Treaty (1887-90). He also gained British cooperation. Domestically, Bismarck extended the powers of the imperial government, adopted laissez-faire economic policies, fought the political power of the Roman Catholic church in the Kulturkampf, and pioneered social welfare measures. After the death of William I in 1888, differences between William II, provoked Bismarck's resignation on 18 March 1890. He devoted his last days writing his memoirs. Bismarck died in Friedrichsruh on 30 July 1898 at the age of 83.

Otto Von Bismarck

Apr 1, 1855

Otto von Bismarck was born into a wealthy, aristocratic family on April 1, 1815, in Schoenhausen, Prussia. After prestigious schooling and university education, (aged 32) he married Johanna von Puttkamer in 1847. In this same year, he entered the new Prussian Parliament, where he was totally opposed to Democracy, and openly supported the rule of the monarch. The revolution Prussia faced in March of 1848 brought about the concession of Prussia and other German states becoming a single nation, and the development of a constitution, but both of these ideas failed to come to fruition. The following year, (with Bismarck now as a member of the lower house of Prussian government), the German states met to discuss unification - which Bismarck was opposed to due to Prussia losing it's independance. This assembly failed in trying to bring about unification, mostly due to the lack of support from Austria and Prussia, the two most important German states. In 1851, Bismarck was appointed 'Diet of the German Confederation in Frankfurt', and effectively his political opinions had changed in favour of German unification, because he was no longer under the influence of conservative Prussians, and it was the only way to balance the increasing influence (and threat) of Austria. From 1858-1862, Bismarck was posted in Russia and the Paris, serving as a Prussian ambassador. The Gastein Convention agreement was signed in 1865, and so Prussia received Schleswig while Austria received Holstein, but in 1866 Austria went back on their word, adamant that the Diet must determine the Shleswig-Holstein issue, and so the Austro-Prussian War broke out. Prussia defeated Austria and it's allies, (much to Europes suprise) at the Battle Of Sadowa, and as a result, the German Confederation came to an end. PruFlag of the German Empire Flag of the German Empire ssia then took control of Schleswig, Holstein, Frankfurt, Hanover, Hesse-Kassel and Nassa, with Austria declaring not to intervene again. In 1867, several North German states and Prussia joined the North German Confederation, with Bismarck as Chancellor and King Wilhelm I serving as the president. Bismarck gained much political support from his successes in the military. The Franco-Prussian War was declared on July 19, 1870 over the vacant Spanish throne which had been offered to the German prince Leopold. The German army one every battle, with the major battles lasting only a month (7th August - 1st September). Immediately after his success in the Franco-Prussian War, Bismarck sought to secure Germans unification, and upon negotiating with representatives of southern German states, he succeeded. Each state of the German Empire was somewhat independant, and King Wilheim the King of Prussia (who became the German Emperor on January 18, 1871) was not sovereign. In Bismarck's wish for Prussia to be the most powerful component of Germany, Austria was excluded from unification (and regardless, were far less superior to Germany after the Austro-Prussian War.) In 1871, Bismarck became Furst (Prince) von Bismarck, and appointed the 'Imperial Chancellor of the German Empire' whilst retaining his titles of Minister-President and Foreign Minister of Prussia, and he therefore had much control over domestic and foreign policy. In the following years, Bismarck attempted to reduce the Catholic Church's influence, and power of the Catholic Centre Party in Germany and created a campaign called Kulturkampf, though this only strengthened the Catholic Centre Party, so Bismarck dismissed the campaign in 1878. Another party which Bismarck felt threatened by was the Social Democratic Party, and against growth in the socialist movement, anti-socialist laws were instituted in 1878 - but, the movement continued to gain followers, even whilst Bismarck attempted to reduce the appeal of socialism. In order to keep peace across Europe and avoid the German Empires strength being threatened, Bismarck maintained pleasant relations with European nations, (bar France who wished to avenge their loss in the Franco-Prussian War) particularly Italy, of whom he is partially responsible for their unification.The Triple Alliance The Triple Alliance After Russo-German relations suffering and The League of the Three Emperors having fallen apart, Bismarck negotiated the Dual Alliance in 1879, which included Austria-Hungary, and in 1882 became the Triple Alliance as Italy joined. By this stage, imperialism was spreading rapidly through Europe, and throughout the early 1880's, Germany hopped on the bandwagon. During this time, Bismarck introduced the first modern welfare scheme the world had seen, which included benefits for sickness, accidents and old age. The German Emperor died in 1888, and was succeeded by his son Friedrich III, though he was ill, soon died and succeeded by his own son Wilhelm II. Wilhelm opposed Bismarck's careful and rather conservative policies, preferring rapid expansion for the German Empire. Due to the little respect Bismarck showed to Wilhelm's policies ultimately a falling out, upon realising he was soon to be dismissed, by Wilhelms insistence Bismarck resigned in 1890, and became Duke of Lauenburg aged 75. He was given much honour after leaving office, and he was praised, painted, had books written about him, and buildings named after him. He spent his final years in Friedrichsruh (near Hamburg), where he died in 1898 aged 83.

Otto Von Bismarck

Apr 1, 1855

Positive effect, he was appointed head of the cabinet and did a lot of great things that led to the unification of Germany

Otto Von Bismarck

Apr 1, 1855

Germany became the first nation in the world to adopt an old-age social insurance program in 1889, designed by Germany's Chancellor, Otto von Bismarck. The idea was first put forward, at Bismarck's behest, in 1881 by Germany's Emperor, William the First, in a ground-breaking letter to the German Parliament. William wrote: ". . .those who are disabled from work by age and invalidity have a well-grounded claim to care from the state." Bismarck was motivated to introduce social insurance in Germany both in order to promote the well-being of workers in order to keep the German economy operating at maximum efficiency, and to stave-off calls for more radical socialist alternatives. Despite his impeccable right-wing credentials, Bismarck would be called a socialist for introducing these programs, as would President Roosevelt 70 years later. In his own speech to the Reichstag during the 1881 debates, Bismarck would reply: "Call it socialism or whatever you like. It is the same to me." The German system provided contributory retirement benefits and disability benefits as well. Participation was mandatory and contributions were taken from the employee, the employer and the government. Coupled with the workers' compensation program established in 1884 and the "sickness" insurance enacted the year before, this gave the Germans a comprehensive system of income security based on social insurance principles. (They would add unemployment insurance in 1927, making their system complete.) One persistent myth about the German program is that it adopted age 65 as the standard retirement age because that was Bismarck's age. This myth is important because Germany was one of the models America looked to in designing its own Social Security plan; and the myth is that America adopted age 65 as the age for retirement benefits because this was the age adopted by Germany when they created their program. In fact, Germany initially set age 70 as the retirement age (and Bismarck himself was 74 at the time) and it was not until 27 years later (in 1916) that the age was lowered to 65. By that time, Bismarck had been dead for 18 years.

Otto Von Bismarck

Apr 1, 1855

Germany became a modern, unified nation under the leadership of the “Iron Chancellor” Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898), who between 1862 and 1890 effectively ruled first Prussia and then all of Germany. A master strategist, Bismarck initiated decisive wars with Denmark, Austria and France to unite 39 independent German states under Prussian leadership. Although an arch-conservative, Bismarck introduced progressive reforms—including universal male suffrage and the establishment of the first welfare state—in order to achieve his goals. He manipulated European rivalries to make Germany a world power, but in doing so laid the groundwork for both World Wars.

Otto Von Bismarck

Apr 1, 1855

Otto von Bismarck, in full Otto Eduard Leopold, Fürst (prince) von Bismarck, Graf (count) von Bismarck-Schönhausen, Herzog (duke) von Lauenburg (born April 1, 1815, Schönhausen, Altmark, Prussia [Germany]—died July 30, 1898, Friedrichsruh, near Hamburg), prime minister of Prussia (1862–73, 1873–90) and founder and first chancellor (1871–90) of the German Empire. Once the empire was established, he actively and skillfully pursued pacific policies in foreign affairs, succeeding in preserving the peace in Europe for about two decades. But in domestic policies his patrimony was less benign, for he failed to rise above the authoritarian proclivities of the landed squirearchy to which he was born.

The Danish War

Feb 1, 1864

Wouldnt let me copy the text.

The Danish War

Feb 1, 1864

A telegram from Copenhagen of June 30, says: "The Danes have withdrawn beyond Horup-Hav skirmishing during the retreat. No further pursuit occurred, and they reached Vollerup in good order at noon yesterday, where they have since embarked." A telegram July 2, says: The loss of the Danes in the retreat from Alsen is officially stated to amount to from 2,500 to 3,000 men, most of whom being killed and wounded; among them are 81 officers. The remainder of the troops and the war material are now being brought away from Alsen. Very considerable contributions have been imposed upon the inhabitants of Jutland. Jutland has been placed under Prussian administration. The Danish inhabitants and officials have been ordered to obey the Prussian authorities, to whom the customs dues and the revenues derived from other sources, are to be handed over. Gen. STEINHANN left Copenhagen June 30, when the shipping of the remainder of the war material was continued. The Paris journals publish intelligence stating that the Prussians and Austrians are increasing the number of their troops in the Duchies. It is asserted that Prussia intends successively taking possession of all the islands in the Archipelago, and afterward endeavoring to attack the enemy in Copenhagen itself. A telegram from Kiel of July 3, says: "The Duke of AUGUSTENBURG received the addressof the select committee of the Schlesw[???]-Holstein Associations to-day. In his reply he said that it wasto be hoped that a division of Schleswig had beenprevented by the active proceedings of the German Powers. He also expressed a hope that the claimsput forward by the Grand Duke of OLDENBURG would not defer the time when he, the Duke of AUGUSTENBURG, would be able to read the Duchies against the common enemy. His Highness concluded: The interests of Germany and the welfare of the country demand a speedy settlement of public affairs on a firm basis. I may hope that the country will enable me to fulfill its obligations toward Germany, and to uphold the relations with that Power which will in future be our most effectual protection against Denmark." A telegram from Randers, of July 3, says: "A reconnoitering force from the Eighth Hussars and the Fiftieth Infantry Regiment drove back a party of Danes who had crossed the Limtjord. Sixty prisoners were taken, of whom thirty are wounded. The Prussian loss was inconsiderable." A telegram from Stralsund, of July 4, says: "At 5 P.M. yesterday, two Danish war ships -- the Fordenskiold, 34 and Schleswig, 12 -- approached within 3,000 panes of the Island of Rugen and the peninsula of Wittow, for the purpose of reconnoitering the coast. Two Prussian companies and a rifled battery occupied Bronske. While the Danes were passing the Prussian guns fired twenty shells, seven of which perceptibly struck the Danish vessels. The Danes withdrew, and at 10 P.M. were seen to the east of Arcona." The Abendpost (Vienna paper) publishes a dispatch of Count RECHBERG, dated Carlsbad, June 24, to the Austrian Ambassadors in Paris, London, St. Petersburg burgh and Stockholm. This dispatch recapitulates all the proceedings of the Conference, in order to prove that Denmark is alone responsible for its failure, she having rejected the last proposition of the neutral Powers. A dispatch from Sonderborg says: "At the partial clearance of the battle-field on the 30th ult., 400 Swedish volunteers were discovered, to whom no quarter was given."

The Danish War

Feb 1, 1864

http://ts3.mm.bing.net/th?id=H.4736220544828302&w=254&h=159&c=7&rs=1&pid=1.7

The Danish War

Feb 1, 1864

http://ts1.mm.bing.net/th?id=H.4641198710721280&w=268&h=174&c=7&rs=1&pid=1.7

Danish War

Feb 1, 1864

The first conflict to break out after the creation of the Red Cross; the ICRC dispatches delegates to both sides of the front line and serves as neutral intermediary; first steps by national Red Cross societies.. In the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, German and Danish interests conflicted; the duchies came under the Danish crown, but a large part of the population spoke German. In November 1863, the death of the King of Denmark, Frederick VII, sparked a dispute over the succession which led to the intervention of Prussia and Austria. On 1 February 1864, the Austrian and Prussian armies invaded Denmark. On 13 March 1864, the International Committee decided to send two delegates to the scene of the fighting: Dr Appia to the Austro-Prussian armies, and Captain Van de Velde (the Netherlands delegate to the 1863 Geneva Conference) to Denmark. The delegates'instructions were:to assist the wounded;to study, on the spot, how the recommendations of the 1863 Geneva Conference were being or could be implemented.The delegates were sent to both sides of the front to ensure impartiality; they carried letters of introduction from the International Committee and the Swiss government and each wore a white armband with a red cross. Dr Appia took part in an operation that was conducted between the front lines: the return of a Danish officer's body. Captain Van de Velde, for his part, visited Austrian and Prussian wounded and prisoners in Danish hands. From the outset, therefore, these two delegates played the role of impartial intermediaries, precisely the role of the ICRC.Van de Velde also contacted an association in Copenhagen set up to assist the wounded and their families and he took steps to ensure that it was considered as one of the relief societies provided for in the resolutions of the 1863 Conference. This marked the founding of the Danish Red Cross.On the Austro-Prussian front, the army accepted the assistance of volunteer doctors and nurses. Allied and enemy wounded were treated on an absolutely equal footing. Prussian Red Cross, which had just been set up, sent considerable quantities of aid, and Dr Appia met its delegate on a number of occasions. He also informed the military doctor s about the contents of the resolutions of the Geneva Conference.

The Danish War

Feb 1, 1864

Denmark's relations with its southern neighbours, particularly Prussia, have played a decisive role in constitutional developments. In 1866 a new Constitution was adopted for the dramatically reduced area of Denmark after its defeat at the hands of Prussia in 1864. The 1866 Constitution included strict limits on the almost universal male suffrage that had been recognised by the 1849 Constitution. In 1915, during the First World War (in which Denmark remained neutral), broad agreement was reached on constitutional reform. Universal suffrage was introduced, so that women and servants could also vote. While since 1849 there had been elections by majority vote in single constituencies, in 1918 an electoral system was introduced combining proportional representation with elections in individual constituencies. Although since the beginning of the century there had been a desire to introduce referenda, partly by the Social Democrats and partly the Radical Liberals, which were in power during the war, the 1915 Constitution only contained a provision for referenda in relation to constitutional change. At the end of the First World War, North Schleswig was returned to Denmark after a plebiscite, and the present southern border with Germany was established.

The Danish War

Feb 1, 1864

http://ts2.mm.bing.net/th?id=H.4855388695366897&w=265&h=175&c=7&rs=1&pid=1.7

Danish War

Feb 1, 1864

This had a positve effect, because Prussia won and it allowed Prussia to rule over land. Prussia became one of the dutches

Danish War

Feb 1, 1864

The Danish WarThe Danish War started with the planned three-pronged attack which involved a) Christian IV marching into north-west Germany b) Christian of Brunswick marching into the Rhineland c) Mansfeld would fight with Bethlan Gabor in Bohemia.However, the coalition had one weak line in it before it even started campaigning - Christian IV of Denmark.Christian was a ruler of land in Holstein and as such was a German prince in his own right. His interest lay not in Bohemia or Bavaria but in gaining control of Lower Saxony and furthering his influence in that area. He was also after the bishoprics of Bremen, Verden, Minden and Halberstadt. For commercial and strategic reasons he also wanted to control the valuable Hansa towns of Hamburg and Lubeck. If Christian could gain control of all of these, then Denmark could monopolise the lucrative Baltic trade.Christian also found foreign help from the coalition lacking in material kind. The Dutch and English only offered moral support while the Danish king found it very difficult to co-ordinate a military policy with Brunswick and Mansfeld.How did Ferdinand react to the Coalition’s threat ? As early as 1624, Ferdinand had appointed a military leader who was directly answerable to the emperor. This man was Albert on Waldstein though he is better known as Wallenstein. Tilly was head of the Catholic League which was answerable to Maximillian of Bavaria. If Maximillian decided to pull out of the war now that he was an Elector twice over, Ferdinand could find himself without a known military leader.Wallenstein was an astute choice. In April 1625, he was created Generlissimo of all the Imperial troops. After recruiting 24,000 troops to fight for the emperor, he was made Duke of Friedland in June 1625. Wallenstein was a complex man but a ruthless tactician. He and Tilly made for a formidable combination and in the Danish War the three-pronged attack of the coalition stuttered to a halt.In April 1626, Mansfeld was defeated by Wallenstein at the Battle of Dessau Bridge. In April of the same year, Christian was heavily defeated by Tilly at the Battle of Lutter.In late 1627, Christian was driven back into Denmark. Holstein, Schleswig and Jutland were occupied by Tilly.After Dessau Bridge, Mansfeld tried to link up with Bethlan Gabor but Gabor had already come to terms with Ferdinand. Mansfeld was left wandering in Balkans with his army. His unpaid troops deserted him and Mansfeld himself died in Sarajevo in November 1626.In 1628, Wallenstein occupied Mecklenburg. He was made Duke of Mecklenburg and Ferdinand appointed him "General of the whole Imperial Fleet and Lord of the Atlantic and Baltic". Wismar and Rostock, important and lucrative Baltic ports, fell under Imperial control.The fall of these two ports gave Olivares the opportunity to put into effect his almirantazgo policy. The plan was simple. By uniting the trading towns of Flanders and the Hansa, Habsburg forces could wrest control of the carrying trade from the Baltic to the ports of Flanders. Dutch sea borne trade would be strangled as the Habsburgs would control movement in the seas off north Europe. This would be a massive boost to Spain’s economy as once again she had gone bankrupt in 1627. It would also undermine the ability of the Dutch to defend themselves as investment in their military would dry up and they would not have the financial clout to pay for mercenaries or buy in foreign troops from the likes of Sweden, for example.Olivares wanted his plan organised by an Inspectorate for Commerce (Almirantazgo de los paises septentrionales). On paper his plan was good. By bankrupting the Dutch and controlling mercantile trade in the Baltic and the north coast of western Europe, he would re-establish Spain’s economy and elevate the status of the Habsburgs once again throughout Europe. But it had one flaw - the plan depended on the co-operation of Wallenstein and he was not in favour of the plan simply because it took power away from him in the Baltic. Wallenstein saw the Baltic as his ‘territory’ and he did not want Spanish interference in the region. It was one of Europe’s most lucrative regions and any money made there, Wallenstein wanted to keep. In support of him were the trading towns of Danzig and Lubeck. Wallenstein was also concerned that the building of an Imperial navy to protect Hansa trade, might provoke a response from Sweden. He feared that Gustavus might invade northern Germany to assert his authority in the area. Wallenstein saw north Germany as his and he did not want the region devastated by war as he would lose a great deal of money if this occurred.This example shows the difficult position Ferdinand was in. The Spanish Habsburg’s via Olivares had what was potentially an excellent plan to re-assert Habsburg power throughout Europe. But the Austrian Habsburg’s , under Ferdinand, seemed to have lost control of their highly successful general Wallenstein who had begun to see himself as a law unto himself.In July 1628, Wallenstein attacked Stralsund in Pomerania. His claim was that it would extend the emperor’s power - but it would also greatly increase his own as Stralsund was a wealthy city. The attempt failed as Stralsund called on Denmark and Sweden to aid it. Both did, and Wallenstein had to withdraw from besieging Stralsund.Christian IV - believing that Wallenstein’s forces were weakened - followed up this success by landing a force in Pomerania. In fact, Wallenstein’s force was still very strong and Christian’s army was heavily defeated at Wolgast in September 1628. However, Wallenstein realised that such a victory might provoke a response by Gustavus of Sweden and he persuaded Ferdinand to agree to generous peace terms with Christian despite the fact that Denmark was incapable of continuing a military campaign.In the Treaty of Lubeck (June 1629), Denmark was allowed to keep her possessions including the valuable state of Holstein; Christian had to give up his claims on the north German bishoprics and his leadership of the Lower Saxon Circle. He also had to formally withdraw from the war.Ferdinand was now in a position where he felt he could ignore the wishes of the German princes. In March 1629, he introduced the Edict of Restitution.

The Danish War

Feb 1, 1864

German-Danish War of 1863–64 a war of Prussia. Austria, and a number of states of the North German Confederation against Denmark, with the goal of capturing the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein.In 1863 a constitution was introduced in Denmark annexing Schleswig to the Danish kingdom. Austria and Prussia demanded that the constitution be revoked and occupied Holstein and Lauenburg. After Denmark refused the Austro-Prussian ultimatum, military operations began on February 1. The Austro-Prussian troops (about 60,000) under the command of the Prussian field marshal F. Wrangel (after May. Prince Friedrich Karl) attacked the main Danish troops under the command of Lieutenant General K. de Meza at a fortified position near Dannewirk. Under pressure from superior forces, the Danes withdrew from February 5 to February 7 to the Diippel region; under the leadership of General Gerlach they resisted their adversaries there until April 18, and then at the Fredericia fortress until April 29. During the battles, up to 35,000 Danish troops were transferred to the islands of Als and Fyn to threaten the enemy’s rear troops with attack. The Austro-Prussian troops had advanced to Jutland, which was defended by nearly 15,000 men. The Danish fleet’s victories on March 17 off the island of Rugen and May 9 off the island of Helgoland did not influence the course of the war. At Denmark’s suggestion, a truce was concluded that lasted from May 12 to June 26. After the truce was over, the Prussian troops occupied Als on June 29, and by July 14 they were occupying the Jutland peninsula as well. Not one government offered aid to Denmark: a conference in London from April to June with representatives from Great Britain, Russia, France, and the warring governments was a failure. On July 16 a second truce was concluded, which ended on October 30 with the Treaty of Vienna, by which Denmark lost Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg. In the German-Danish War of 1863–64 the Prussian troops used for the first time a new breech-loading rifle whose rate of fire was three times that of their previous rifles.

Seven Weeks War

Jun 8, 1866

Seven Weeks' War (1866) Also known as: Austro-Prussian War Date(s): 1866 Description: A war fought in 1866 between Prussia and its ally Italy against Austria and its allies Wurttemberg, Saxony, Hanover, and other minor German states. The Prussians, under Otto von Bismark, decisively defeated the Austrians and further consolidated their position in North Germany.

Seven Weeks War

Jun 8, 1866

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Seven Weeks War

Jun 8, 1866

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Seven Weeks War

Jun 8, 1866

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Seven Weeks War

Jun 8, 1866

Seven Weeks’ War, also called Austro-prussian War, (1866), war between Prussia on the one side and Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and certain minor German states on the other. It ended in a Prussian victory, which meant the exclusion of Austria from Germany. The issue was decided in Bohemia, where the principal Prussian armies met the main Austrian forces and the Saxon army, most decisively at the Battle of Königgrätz. A Prussian detachment, known as the army of the Main, meanwhile dealt with the forces of Bavaria and other German states that had sided with Austria. Simultaneously, a campaign was fought in Venetia between the Austrian army of the south and the Italians, who had made an alliance with Prussia. The 1866 campaign was a carefully planned stage in the unification of Germany under Prussia’s Hohenzollern dynasty, of which Otto von Bismarck was the principal agent. The issue was clear-cut: Prussia deliberately challenged Austria for the leadership of the German Confederation. Prussia had challenged Austria in 1850, but the complete failure of its mobilization in that year compelled the acceptance at Olmütz of the somewhat humiliating terms of Austria. Since then Prussia, with Bismarck as statesman, Count Helmuth von Moltke as strategist, and Count Albrecht von Roon as army organizer, had prepared methodically for a fresh challenge. The actual pretext found by Bismarck in 1866 was a dispute over the administration of Schleswig and Holstein, which Austria and Prussia had seized from Denmark in 1864 and had since held jointly. Diplomatic exchanges began in January and military preparations a little later, but hostilities did not actually break out until the middle of June.By the alliance with Italy, Bismarck contrived to divert part of the Austrian forces to the south. This advantage, together with that of Prussia’s modernized army discipline, resulted in a Prussian victory; the war was formally concluded on August 23 by the Treaty of Prague. The treaty assigned Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia. The latter also annexed Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, Nassau, and Frankfurt outright, thus acquiring the territory that had separated the eastern and the western parts of the Prussian state. By the Peace of Vienna (Oct. 3, 1866) Austria ceded Venetia for transfer to Italy. Prussia’s victory in the war enabled it to organize the North German Confederation.

Seven Weeks War

Jun 8, 1866

Europe during the second half of the nineteenth century was in turmoil. Ancient empires sought to hold and consolidate their power, smaller states struggled to forge themselves into new nations and old enmities fanned the fires of conflict. The Seven Weeks War of 1866, the subject of this book, was also known as the Austro-Prussian War, the German War, the Unification War, the German Civil War and the Fraternal War-and when considered as part of the process which brought about the unification

Seven Weeks War

Jun 8, 1866

Bavaria in the Seven Weeks' War of 1866The Seven Weeks' War destroyed the German Confederation and shifted power from Vienna to Berlin, but Bavaria was treated leniently and her independence was preserved. At the outbreak of the Seven Weeks’ War between Prussia and Austria in the summer of 1866, Bavaria’s King Ludwig II was twenty years old. The unexpected death of King Maximillian II in 1864 had brought to the throne a disinterested youth whose passions gravitated to Richard Wagner’s operas and who detested modern warfare. Ultimately allied with Austria, the Bavarians were resoundingly defeated at Kissingen by the Prussian General von Falkenstein.

Seven Weeks War

Jun 8, 1866

The Austro-Prussian War (in Germany known as Deutscher Krieg ("German War"); or Seven Weeks War, the Unification War[2] or the German Civil War or Bruderkrieg, German for "fraternal war") was a war fought in 1866 between the Austrian Empire and its German allies on one side and the Kingdom of Prussia with its German allies and Italy on the other, that resulted in Prussian dominance over the German states. In Germany and Austria, it is also called Österreichisch-preussischer Krieg (Austro-Prussian War). In the Italian unification process, this is called the Third Independence War. For centuries, the Holy Roman Emperors who mostly came from the Habsburg family had nominally ruled all of "Germany" — the Holy Roman Empire. In fact, however, the territory of Central Europe was split into a few large states and hundreds of tiny entities (principalities, bishoprics and free cities and even free villages, baronies, lordships and knighthoods), each jealously maintaining its de facto sovereignty and independence with the assistance of outside powers, particularly France. Austria—the personal territory of the Habsburg Emperors—was traditionally considered the leader of the German states, but Prussia was becoming increasingly powerful and by the late 18th century was ranked as one of the great powers of Europe. The Empire was formally disbanded in 1806 when the political makeup of Central Europe was re-organised by Napoleon.[3] The German states were drawn into the ambit of the Confederation of the Rhine (Rheinbund) which was forced to submit to French influence until the defeat of the French Emperor.[4] After the Napoleonic Wars had ended in 1815, the Germanic states were once again reorganized into a loose confederation: the German Confederation, under Austrian leadership.

Seven Weeks War

Jun 8, 1866

The Seven Weeks War began on June 15th with a Prussian invasion of Saxony which was an Austrian ally. The war was the idea of Bismark whose wished to strengthen German unity which Austria opposed. The Austrians were defeated in the battle of Sadowa. On August 23 the Austrians and the Prussians signed the Treaty of Prague which was favorable to Prussia. Austria was forced to cede Schleswig-Holstien as well as Frankfurt and Hanover to Prussia. Austria was also forced to accept the creation of the Northern German Confederation.

Seven Weeks War

Jun 8, 1866

It would result in a positve effect, because it allowed Prussia to win a war in seven weeks using advanced technology.

Treaty of Prague

Aug 23, 1866

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Treaty of Prague

Aug 23, 1866

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Treaty of Prague

Aug 23, 1866

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Treaty of Prague

Aug 23, 1866

Prague, Treaty of, 1866: see Austro-Prussian War.

Treaty of Prague

Aug 23, 1866

23 August 23) Treaty concluding the Austro-Prussian War. Highly favorable to Prussia, it dissolved the German Confederation, gave Prussia leadership of the North German Confederation and permitted Italy, Prussia's ally, to acquire Venetia.

Treaty of Prague

Aug 23, 1866

For Immediate Release March 26, 2010Key Facts about the New START TreatyTreaty Structure: The New START Treaty is organized in three tiers of increasing level of detail. The first tier is the Treaty text itself. The second tier consists of a Protocol to the Treaty, which contains additional rights and obligations associated with Treaty provisions. The basic rights and obligations are contained in these two documents. The third tier consists of Technical Annexes to the Protocol. All three tiers will be legally binding. The Protocol and Annexes will be integral parts of the Treaty and thus submitted to the U.S. Senate for its advice and consent to ratification.Strategic Offensive Reductions: Under the Treaty, the U.S. and Russia will be limited to significantly fewer strategic arms within seven years from the date the Treaty enters into force. Each Party has the flexibility to determine for itself the structure of its strategic forces within the aggregate limits of the Treaty. These limits are based on a rigorous analysis conducted by Department of Defense planners in support of the 2010 Nuclear Posture Review.Aggregate limits:◾1,550 warheads. Warheads on deployed ICBMs and deployed SLBMs count toward this limit and each deployed heavy bomber equipped for nuclear armaments counts as one warhead toward this limit. ◾This limit is 74% lower than the limit of the 1991 START Treaty and 30% lower than the deployed strategic warhead limit of the 2002 Moscow Treaty. ◾A combined limit of 800 deployed and non-deployed ICBM launchers, SLBM launchers, and heavy bombers equipped for nuclear armaments.◾A separate limit of 700 deployed ICBMs, deployed SLBMs, and deployed heavy bombers equipped for nuclear armaments. ◾This limit is less than half the corresponding strategic nuclear delivery vehicle limit of the START Treaty.Verification and Transparency: The Treaty has a verification regime that combines the appropriate elements of the 1991 START Treaty with new elements tailored to the limitations of the Treaty. Measures under the Treaty include on-site inspections and exhibitions, data exchanges and notifications related to strategic offensive arms and facilities covered by the Treaty, and provisions to facilitate the use of national technical means for treaty monitoring. To increase confidence and transparency, the Treaty also provides for the exchange of telemetry.Treaty Terms: The Treaty’s duration will be ten years, unless superseded by a subsequent agreement. The Parties may agree to extend the Treaty for a period of no more than five years. The Treaty includes a withdrawal clause that is standard in arms control agreements. The 2002 Moscow Treaty terminates upon entry into force of the New START Treaty. The U.S. Senate and the Russian legislature must approve the Treaty before it can enter into force.No Constraints on Missile Defense and Conventional Strike: The Treaty does not contain any constraints on testing, development or deployment of current or planned U.S. missile defense programs or current or planned United States long-range conventional strike capabilities.I will be the first to admit (along with many others it seems in the arms control community) to still trying to intuitively puzzle out the “separate” and “combined” limits, but bigger picture see somethings of interest:a) This is a “build-down” treaty, not one designed to forestall future developments (e.g., throw weight breakouts, air launched ballistic missiles, etc.) which speaks volumes to the current and future states of the strategic programs of the US and Russia.b) For the US — B-1′s, SSGNs , conventional ballistic missiles (aka Prompt Global Strike) and missile defenses (both the ground-based BMDS and the forthcoming PAA) are off the books. Russia ends up with a less obtrusive inspection/verification regime and a requirement for only 5 telemetry exchanges per year (per SECDEF Gates at the press briefing).c) Empty launchers apparently won’t be counted – unlike START. Bombers weight in the overall equation is lessened (as some commentators have pointed out, almost Reagan-esque as his assertion was the slower bombers weren’t as much of a threat as the missiles).d) Though each bomber counts as one warhead — each bomber also counts as one delivery vehicle, which acts to limit temptation to build a large fleet of bombers armed with cruise missiles (that and the current state of air defenses). On the future of the bomber force as an element of the traditional nuclear deterrent triad, an interesting and recent paper by the Mitchell Air Power Institute on what shape the deterrent force should take (Triad, Dyad, Monad?) asserts that:(The) US Department of Defense should pursue an ICBM/SLBM Dyad as it moves to reshape its nuclear force posture at lower warhead levels. Essentially, the US is already moving in this direction: the ICBMs and SLBMs remain robust, with modernization scheduled and funded, but the aging ALCM calls into question the value of the B-52 fleet, while the modernized but very small B-2 force is assuming a niche role. In short, the United States will soon field a de facto nuclear Dyad.and that for the near term the United States shouldleverage the strengths of the ICBM and SLBM forces while minimizing the weaknesses of the nuclear-capable bomber as that leg of the Triad is phased out. Prudent decisions about nuclear weapons and delivery vehicles for the future—under arms control ceilings limiting deployed weapons and launchers—demand deliberation within a framework of deterrent attributes and stabilizing outcomes such as offered here. We believe a Dyad of modernized ICBMs and SLBMs will provide for strategic nuclear deterrence and stability in the years ahead, while allowing and encouraging needed investments in long-range conventional strike.All of which, along with the release of the NPR and expected forthcoming debate over PGS, should provide interesting fodder for deliberations over the size and shape of the US strategic deterrent force in the coming years.I’ll continue turning over the whole numerical relationships — and hopefully we’ll have the actual treaty text to review and add insight in the near future. In the meantime, it is a good sign that Sen Lugar (R-Ind.) has voiced his approval on the treaty which I hope will be subject to a through, dispassionate review as it goes to ratification this summer More, definitely more, to follow.(crossposted at steeljawscribe.com)

Treaty of Prague

Aug 23, 1866

The Fifty States . Share on print Share on email Cite this pageCite this pageShare on twitter Share on facebook | More Sharing ServicesShare Encyclopedia > History > Modern Europe > Wars and Battles Austro-Prussian War Austro-Prussian War or Seven Weeks War, June 15–Aug. 23, 1866, between Prussia, allied with Italy, and Austria, seconded by Bavaria, Württemberg, Saxony, Hanover, Baden, and several smaller German states. It was deliberately provoked by Bismarck, over the objections of his king, in order to expel Austria from the German Confederation as a step toward the unification of Germany under Prussian dominance. The pretext for precipitating the conflict was found in the dispute between Prussia and Austria over the administration of Schleswig-Holstein. When Austria brought the dispute before the German diet and also decided to convene the Holstein diet, Prussia, declaring that the Gastein Convention (see under Gastein) had thereby been nullified, invaded Holstein. When the German diet responded by voting for a partial mobilization against Prussia, Bismarck declared that the German Confederation was ended. With an efficient military machine that amazed Europe, Prussia overran the German states allied with Austria and crushed (July 3) the Austrians at Sadová (or Sadowa; also known as the battle of Königgrätz), in E Bohemia. However, Bismarck had no intention of weakening Austria, a potential ally, more than necessary. The preliminary treaty of Nikolsburg (July 26) was followed (Aug. 23) by the Treaty of Prague. Against Italy, the Austrians had won victories on the land, at Custozza, and on the sea, at Lissa. Nevertheless, the peace treaty forced Austria to cede Venetia to Italy. Prussia, satisfied with the exclusion, acknowledged in the treaty, of Austria from German affairs, demanded no territory from Austria, but annexed Hanover, Hesse, Nassau, and Frankfurt, in addition to Schleswig-Holstein. The German Confederation was replaced by the Prussian-led North German Confederation. Thus the war paved the way for the establishment (1871) of the German Empire and the reorientation of Austria (reorganized in 1867 as the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy) toward the east. The moderate peace terms facilitated the Austro-German alliance of 1879. Read more: Austro-Prussian War | Infoplease.com http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/history/austro-prussian-war.html#ixzz2jG5aHxpO

Treaty of Prague

Aug 23, 1866

The Peace of Prague is the name of a peace treaty ending the 1866 Austro-Prussian War. The treaty was lenient toward Austria (It is speculated that this was due to a desire by Otto von Bismarck to use Austria in his plans for German unification), which only lost Venetia, ceded to Napoleon III, who in turn ceded it to Italy. Austria refused to give Venetia directly to Italy because the Austrians had crushed the Italians during the war. The Habsburgs were permanently excluded from German affairs. Prussia thus established itself as the only major power among the German states.

Treaty of Prague

Aug 23, 1866

Positive effect, it ended the seven weeks war allowing Italy to gain Venetia, Austria giving up Holstein to Prussia, and allowing Prussia to form the North German Confederation

Treaty of Prague

Aug 23, 1866

The Treaty of Prague was a treaty signed on 11 December 1973, in Prague, by the Federal Republic of Germany and Czechoslovakia, in which the two States recognized each other diplomatically and declared the 1938 Munich Agreements to be null and void - by acknowledging the inviolability of their common borders and abandoning all territorial claims. The Treaty of Prague was a strong element of the Ostpolitik put forward by the German Chancellor Willy Brandt and supported by his ruling party in the Bundestag of the Federal Republic of Germany. Also, since Germany and Czechoslovakia had never signed any treaty since the Second World War, this treaty functioned as a peace treaty between the two countries and it continues to do so. The western part of Czechoslovakia that borders with Germany has now split off and become the Czech Republic, which has also ratified this treaty.

Franco-Prussian War

Jul 19, 1870

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Franco-Prussian War

Jul 19, 1870

The Franco Prussian War The Franco-Prussian War, was a war in 1870-1871 lost by France to the German states under the leadership of Prussia. The underlying causes of the conflict were the determination of the Prussian statesman Prince Otto Edward Leopold von Bismarck to unify Germany under Prussian control and, as a step toward this goal, to eliminate French influence over Germany. On the other hand, Napoleon III, emperor of France from 1852 to 1870, sought to regain both in France and abroad the prestige lost as a result of numerous diplomatic reverses, particularly those suffered at the hands of Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. In addition, the military strength of Prussia, as revealed in the war with Austria, constituted a threat to French dominance on the continent of Europe.INITIATING INCIDENTS The event directly precipitating the Franco-Prussian War was the candidacy of Leopold, prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, for the throne of Spain, rendered vacant by the Spanish revolution of 1868. Leopold had accepted the candidacy under persuasion from Bismarck. The French government, alarmed at the possibility of a Prusso-Spanish alliance resulting from the occupancy of the Spanish throne by a member of the Hohenzollern dynastic family, threatened Prussia with war if Leopold's candidacy was not withdrawn. The French ambassador to the Prussian court, Comte Vincente Benedetti, was dispatched to Ems, a spa in northwestern Germany being visited by William I, king of Prussia. Benedetti had been instructed to demand that the Prussian monarch order Prince Leopold to withdraw his candidacy. William, although angered, gave Benedetti permission to communicate directly with Leopold by telegraph. Leopold could not be reached, but his father, Prince Charles Anthony, wired a retraction of the candidacy in the name of his son.The government of Napoleon III, still not content, was determined to humiliate Prussia, even at the cost of war. Antoine Agénor Alfred, duc de Gramont, the French foreign minister, demanded that William submit a personal letter of apology to Napoleon III and a guarantee that the Hohenzollern candidacy would never be renewed. In an interview with Benedetti at Ems, the Prussian king rejected the French demands. The same day, Bismarck obtained William's authorization to publish the French demands and the Prussian rejection contained in what was known as the Ems Dispatch. Bismarck edited the document in a manner calculated to aggravate the resentment of the French and the Germans. The Prussian statesman realized that this move would in all probability precipitate war, but he knew that Prussia was prepared, and he counted on the psychological effect of a French declaration of war to rally the south German states to Prussia's cause, thus accomplishing the final phase in the unification of Germany. THE WAR BEGINS On July 19, 1870, France declared war on Prussia. The south German states, in fulfillment of their treaties with Prussia, immediately joined King William in a common front against France. The French were only able to mobilize about 200,000 troops; the Germans, however, quickly marshaled an army of about 400,000 men. All German forces were under the supreme command of William, with the great strategist Helmuth Karl Bernhard, Graf von Moltke, as his chief of staff. Three German armies drove into France, led, respectively, by General Karl Friedrich von Steinmetz, Prince Frederick Charles, and Crown Prince Frederick William, later Frederick III of Prussia and emperor of Germany. The first engagement, a minor skirmish, was won by the French on August 2, when they drove a small Prussian detachment from the city of Saarbrücken, near the border between France and Germany. In the major battles at Weissenburg (August 4), at Wörth (August 6), and at Spichern (August 6), however, the French under Marie Edmé Patrice Maurice, comte de MacMahon were defeated. MacMahon was ordered to fall back on Châlons. Achille François Bazaine, in command of all French troops east of the city of Metz, was directed to maintain his positions. Metz itself was to be held at all costs. These orders split the French forces, which were unable thereafter to regain their unity or freedom of action. On August 12 the French emperor handed the supreme command over to Bazaine, who was badly beaten in the great battles of Vionville (August 15) and Gravelotte (August 18), and forced into Metz. There he was besieged by two German armies. MacMahon then was ordered to relieve Metz. On August 30 the Germans surprised and defeated MacMahon's leading corps at Beaumont, whereupon he decided to withdraw his army to the town of Sedan.BATTLE OF SEDAN AND CAPTURE OF NAPOLEON III The decisive battle of the war opened in Sedan on the morning of September 1, 1870 (see Sedan, Battle of). At about 7:00 AM MacMahon was severely wounded, and an hour and a half later General Emmanuel Félix de Wimpffen received the chief command. The battle continued until 4:15 PM, when Napoleon, who meanwhile had arrived in Sedan, resumed command. Recognizing the hopelessness of the situation, he ordered the white flag to be hoisted. Terms of surrender were negotiated during the night, and on the following day Napoleon, together with 83,000 troops, surrendered to the Germans.Upon receiving intelligence of the capture of the French emperor, Paris rose in rebellion, the Legislative Assembly was dissolved, and France was proclaimed a republic. Before the close of September, Strasbourg, one of the last points at which the French had hoped to stem the German advance, capitulated, and Paris was completely surrounded. On October 7 the minister of the new French government, Léon Gambetta, made a dramatic escape from Paris by balloon, and with his chief assistant, Charles Louis de Saulces de Freycinet, established a provisional capital in the city of Tours. From there they led the organization and equipment of 36 military divisions. The efforts of these troops proved unavailing, however, and they were at length driven into Switzerland, where they were disarmed and interned. SIEGE OF PARIS, FRENCH CAPITULATION, AND GERMAN OCCUPATION On October 27 Marshal Bazaine surrendered at Metz with 173,000 men. Paris, meanwhile, was subjected to siege and bombardment. Its citizens, attempting to stave off the enemy with crude and makeshift weapons, and reduced to eating cats, dogs, and even rats, were at length compelled, on January 19, 1871, to open negotiations for surrender.A day earlier, January 18, an event had occurred that represented the culmination of Bismarck's unremitting efforts for the unification of Germany. William I, the Prussian king, was crowned emperor of Germany in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles. The formal capitulation of Paris took place on January 28, following which an armistice of three weeks was arranged. A French national assembly, elected to negotiate the peace, convened at Bordeaux on February 13 and chose Adolphe Thiers as the first president of the Third Republic. In March Parisians broke out in revolt of the new assembly and organized a revolutionary government known as the Commune of Paris (see Commune of Paris, 1871). Opposing the armistice, they fought bitterly against government troops sent by Thiers to suppress the revolt. The ensuing civil war lasted until May, when the revolutionaries surrendered. The Treaty of Frankfurt, signed on May 10, 1871, ended the war between France and Germany. The treaty provided that the French province of Alsace (excepting Belfort) and part of Lorraine, including Metz, were to be ceded to the German Empire, and that France was to pay a war indemnity of 5 billion gold francs ($1 billion), submitting to occupation by German troops until the amount was rendered in full. This heavy obligation was discharged in September 1873, and during the same month, after an occupation of almost three years, France was at last freed of German soldiers.

Franco-Prussian War

Jul 19, 1870

Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, 1870–71, conflict between France and Prussia that signaled the rise of German military power and imperialism. It was provoked by Otto von Bismarck (the Prussian chancellor) as part of his plan to create a unified German Empire. CausesThe emergence of Prussia as the leading German power and the increasing unification of the German states were viewed with apprehension by Napoleon III after the Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. Bismarck, at the same time, deliberately encouraged the growing rift between Prussia and France in order to bring the states of S Germany into a national union. He made sure of Russian and Italian neutrality and counted—correctly—on British neutrality. War preparations were pushed on both sides, with remarkable inefficiency in France and with astounding thoroughness in Prussia.The immediate pretext for war presented itself when the throne of Spain was offered to a prince of the house of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, a branch of the ruling house of Prussia. The offer, at first accepted on Bismarck's advice, was rejected (July 12) after a strong French protest. But the aggressive French foreign minister, the duc de Gramont, insisted on further Prussian assurances, which King William I of Prussia (later Emperor William I) refused. Bismarck, by publishing the famous Ems dispatch, inflamed French feeling, and on July 19, France declared war.The Course of the WarPartly because they believed France the aggressor, the states of S Germany enthusiastically joined the North German Confederation—just as Bismarck had hoped. The military conduct of the war was, for the Germans, in the hands of Helmuth Karl Bernhard von Moltke, a military genius. On the French side, Napoleon III took active command, but it soon devolved on Marshal Bazaine.On Aug. 4, 1870, the Germans crossed the border into Alsace. They defeated the French at Wissembourg, pushed the French under Marshal MacMahon to Châlons-en-Champagne, and forced a wedge between MacMahon's forces and those of Bazaine, centered on Metz. Bazaine, attempting to join MacMahon, was defeated at Vionville (Aug. 16) and Gravelotte (Aug. 18) and returned to Metz. The Germans began their march on Paris, and on Sept. 1 the attempt of Napoleon III and MacMahon to rescue Bazaine led to disaster at Sedan. The emperor and 100,000 of his men were captured.When the news of Sedan reached Paris a bloodless revolution occurred. Napoleon was deposed, and a provisional government of national defense was formed under General Trochu, Léon Gambetta, and Jules Favre. Paris was surrounded by the Germans on Sept. 19, and a grueling siege began. Gambetta escaped from Paris in a balloon to organize resistance in the provinces. Faidherbe made a gallant stand on the Loire, Chanzy in the north, and Bourbaki in the east, but the surrender (Oct. 27) of Bazaine, with a garrison of 180,000 men, made such resistance useless. Paris, however, held out until Jan. 28, 1871, suffering several months of famine. Though Bismarck and Adolphe Thiers signed an armistice on the same day, the fortress of Belfort resisted until Feb. 16.Results of the WarIn the war's aftermath, Thiers was named chief of the executive power in France, and provision was made for the election of a French national assembly, which met at Bordeaux. The assembly accepted (Mar. 1) the preliminary peace agreement, which was formalized in the Treaty of Frankfurt (ratified May 21, 1871). France agreed to pay an indemnity of $1 billion within three years—an indemnity fully paid before the term expired. Alsace, except the Territory of Belfort, and a large part of Lorraine were ceded to Germany, which on Jan. 18, 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles had been proclaimed an empire under William I.Paris refused to disarm and to submit to the Thiers regime, and the Commune of Paris was formed. The French troops loyal to Thiers began the second siege of Paris (Apr.–May, 1871). After the cruel suppression of the commune, peace returned to France.Besides establishing the Third French Republic and the German Empire, the Franco-Prussian War had other far-reaching effects. Desire for revenge guided French policy for the following half-century. Prussian militarism had triumphed and laid the groundwork for German imperialistic ventures. The Papal States, no longer protected by Napoleon III, were annexed by Italy, which thus completed its unification. These and other effects were links in the chain of causes that set off World War I.

Franco-Prussian War

Jul 19, 1870

Franco-Prussian War - Fast Facts Dates: July 19, 1870 to May 10, 1871 Location: France and Prussia Result: Decisive Prussian/German victory; Treaty of Frankfurt Territorial changes: North German Confederation and other German states unite to form German Empire; Germany annexes Alsace-Lorraine; End of the Second French Empire; Formation of the French Third Republic Belligerants: Second French Empire vs. North German Confederation, Kingdom of Prussia (Leading Member of the North German Confederation), Baden, Bavaria, and Württemberg. Commanders: France: Napoleon III, François Achille Bazaine, and Patrice de Mac-Mahon, duc de Magenta; Prussia: Otto von Bismarck and Helmuth von Moltke the Elder. Force strength: France: 492,585 active[1], 417,366 Garde Mobile[2]; Prussia: 300,000 regular, 900,000 reserves and Landwehr[3] Casualties: France: 138,871 dead or wounded[4], 474,414 captured[5]; Prussia; 116,696 dead or wounded[6] IntroductionThe Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the 1870 War[7] (19 July 1870—10 May 1871) was a conflict between France and Prussia, while Prussia was backed by the North German Confederation, of which it was a member, and the South German states of Baden, Württemberg and Bavaria. The complete Prussian and German victory brought about the final unification of the German Empire under King William I of Prussia. It also marked the downfall of Napoleon III and the end of the Second French Empire, which was replaced by the Third Republic. As part of the settlement, almost all of the territory of Alsace-Lorraine was taken by Prussia to become a part of Germany, which it would retain until the end of World War I.The conflict was a culmination of years of tension between the two powers, which finally came to a head over the issue of a Hohenzollern candidate for the vacant Spanish throne, following the deposition of Isabella II in 1868. The public release of the Ems Dispatch, which played up alleged insults between the Prussian king and the French ambassador, inflamed public opinion on both sides. France mobilized, and on 19 July declared war on Prussia only, but the other German states quickly joined on Prussia's side.The superiority of the Prussian and German forces was soon evident, due in part to efficient use of railways[8] and impressively superior Krupp steel artillery. A series of swift Prussian and German victories in eastern France culminated in the Battle of Sedan, at which Napoleon III was captured with his whole army on 2 September. Yet this did not end the war, as the Third Republic was declared in Paris on 4 September 1870, and French resistance continued under the Government of National Defence and later Adolphe Thiers.Over a five-month campaign, the German armies defeated the newly recruited French armies in a series of battles fought across northern France. Following a prolonged siege, Paris fell on 28 January 1871. The siege is also notable due to the fact that it saw the first use of anti-aircraft artillery, a Krupp piece built specifically to shoot down the hot air balloons being used by the French as couriers. Ten days earlier, the German states had proclaimed their union under the Prussian King, uniting Germany as a nation-state, the German Empire. The final peace Treaty of Frankfurt was signed 10 May 1871, during the time of the bloody Paris Commune of 1871

Franco-Prussian War

Jul 19, 1870

Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871In July 1870 the French emperor, who did not agree with the accession of a Prussian prince to the vacant throne of Spain, obtains satisfaction with the withdrawal of the pretender Leopold of Hohenzollern. But Napoleon III wants more: he wishes that Prussia signs an agreement for the future, in definitively giving up the Spanish throne. It's unthinkable to him to live the situation of the XVlth century again, where the emperor Charles of Austria, better know as Charles the Fifth, reigning over Spain and Germany encircled France in a stranglehold. This impossible situation provoked six wars, from 1521 to 1559. It's also important to remember their prolongations: six other wars from 1635 to 1748 took place. Needless to say, that France valued the tranquillity of the Pyrenees area. In Ems the ambassador of France is received by the King of Prussia. In a German newspaper, manipulated by the royal chancellor Bismarck, he finds out about an unacceptable French proposal which was rejected by the King William the 1st of Hohenzollern. This provocation offends the French diplomacy and stirs up the bellicosity of the court around the empress Eugenie, herself Spanish and influencing Napoleon III. Assembled in the castle of Saint-Cloud, the Council of Ministers decides to declare war to Prussia. The Chamber of Deputies pronounces itself in favor of war with a majority of 425 votes against 10. July 19th in 1870 the French empire declares war to the Prussian kingdom. Napoleon III leads the army in July 28th in Metz. August 2nd in Mayence, William the 1st takes command of his troops to which the allied German troops will join. During this victorious campaign he is proclaimed emperor (or Kaiser) by all the sovereign vassals and the German allies. Compared to the army of the powerful enemy, which had more then 600 000 soldiers, 70,000 horses and 1500 canons, France, weakened by its preceding wars (Crimea, Italy, Mexico) had an army of hardly 250,000 men, 43,000 horses and 900 canons. The huge German army is made up of confederated troops gathering those of Prussia and twenty-two subjected States of the northern Confederation plus those of the southern States: the kingdoms of Baviera, Württemberg, of the great duchy of Bade. The very tough Prussian army has just beaten Denmark in 1864, then Austria in 1866. Moreover, it improved its armament. The French count on their modern "Chassepot" rifle with mobile breech and on their Reffye machine-guns. The beginning of the war is a succession of defeats sustained by the imperial army: in Wissembourg August 4th, in Woerth and in Froeschwiller August the 6th. In this last location the very famous attack of Reischoffen will take place. While the Prussian army encircles Strasbourg, another enters in Lorraine and will win the battle of Forbach August 6th. The enemy arrives in Metz, where the army of Marshal Bazaine is forced to withdraw. The French respond by attacking the enemy, during the battles of Borny, Gravelotte, Sainte-Privat, respectively on August 14th, 16th and 18th. However, Bizaine commander in chief doesn't react rapidly, allowing 200 000 German encircle him and finally besiege him. Marshal Mac Mahon gathers his army in Châllons (Marne),chere he hopes to free Metz,with the help of Napoleon III. But the enemy drives MacMahon's army towards the Ardennes where the battle of Sedan took place. The French lost this fight on September 1st ; the emperor and thousands of his men are imprisoned. The army of Châlons is destroyed and the remaining men flee where they can. The imperial surrender provoked in Paris marks the decline of Napoleon III and his regime. The Republic is proclaimed the September 4th and a government of the National Defence is constituted and made up of Parisian deputies like, Jules Favre, Jules Ferry, Jules Simon, Léon Gambetta ect. Without any obstacle on their way, the German army invaded the region of the Champagne and finally reached Paris. The capital was completely encircled on September 19th. The siege of Paris began. In autumn the fortified places of Toul, Strasbourg and Metz surrender. Marshal Bazaine capitulates in Metz without even fighting, abandoning 173 000 soldiers, 3 Marshals, 50 Generals, 53 flags, 200 000 rifles, guns and ammunitions. Bismarck refuses the peace proposals of the Republic and already claims Alsace and Lorraine as conquered. Prussia aimed the available forces to Paris and in general the whole centre of the country. He is beaten in Orleans and Coulmiers. It is now possible for the army of the Loire to move forwards to help the Parisians. The battle of Artanay (October 10th), Baune-le-Rolande (November 28th) and Patay (December 2nd) will take place. While in Paris on December 2nd, General Ducrot tries in vain to exile from Champigny. On November 9th the enemy takes Orleans back. Gambetta who left capital by balloon, tried to animate the national defence in the province. Meanwhile the isolated places of Belfort and Bitche in the east of the country still resists. On December 6th the Germans enters in Normandy and take control of Rouen. On December 23rd in the region of Picardie, General Faidherbe forces the enemy back Pont-Noyelles. He will also beat them January 2nd and 3rd 1871 in Baupaume before being defeated on January 19th during the battle of Saint-Quentin. Paris is bombarded by the artillery of the Prussian siege and sustains serious damage and conflagrations. Like the soldiers, the population suffer of famine and cold. The besieged lose the fight of Bordeaux, Le Bourget and Buzenval. Indeed General Chanzy can't help them because his army is beaten on January 10th in Mans. The capital is exhausted and has to give itself up to the enemy on January 28th. In the east, the army of General Bourbaki, in its attempt towards Belfort, wins the battle of Villersexel January 9th, but is pushed back in Héricourt the 15th, 16th and 17th and rejected towards Switzerland, where he finds the rest of his troops. The war takes place also in Burgundy from December 70 to January 71 where the battle of Dijon and Nuits-Saint-Georges take place. Once the Parisian capitulation is signed on January 28th, a temporary armistice is concluded. Thanks to the elections of February 8th, Adolphe Thiers becomes chief of the executive power in Bordeaux, where the government retrieved temporarily. In Versailles, February 26th, Thiers negotiate with the chancellor von Bismarck a general suspension of the hostilities. Nevertheless some French carry on the fights. March 1st the victorious Germans enter Paris from the west. The regiments descend the Champs-Elysées. That day, in Bordeaux, the national assembly accepts the peace conditions with 546 votes against 107. March 27th the defenders of Bitche, in Moselle leave the citadel. The enemy gives the military honour to the French. The same thing happens with the defenders of Belfort who left the place on January 16th. From March 18th until May 27th , the tragic Parisian events explode. During these months Versaillians and Communards conduct a fratricidal fight without mercy. On May 10th the treaty of Frankfurt stops these rough fights. France lost nearly 1700 communes, that is to say the whole Alsace and a part of Lorraine. It represents a loss of 1 600 000 men ; moreover, France had to pay an indemnity of 5 billion Gold francs plus the interests of 567 million francs, to the German winner. To guarantee that payment, the enemy troops will occupy some of the French departments during two years. They will leave Verdun, the last invaded city only in September 13th 1873. The 341 million Francs of occupation expenses are paid by the French. During this period the French army hasn't got the right to station beyond the Loire. France cries over 138 000 killed people ; over 400 000 prisoners and among them 18000 will die in captivity.

Franco-Prussian War

Jul 19, 1870

http://ts3.mm.bing.net/th?id=H.4831719149275502&w=220&h=169&c=7&rs=1&pid=1.7

Franco-Prussian War

Jul 19, 1870

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Franco-Prussian War

Jul 19, 1870

(1870–71) War in which a coalition of German states led by Prussia defeated France, ending French hegemony in continental Europe and creating a unified Germany. The immediate cause was the candidacy of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen for the Spanish throne, which raised the possibility of a combination of Prussia and Spain against France. Following diplomatic maneuvers to block Leopold's candidacy, the Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck published the Ems Telegram to provoke the French government into declaring war, which it did. The other German states sided with Prussia, and German troops under Gen. Helmuth von Moltke, superior in numbers and organization, scored repeated victories. After Napoleon III surrendered at the Battle of Sedan, French resistance was carried on by a new government, which deposed the emperor and established the Third Republic. Paris surrendered, but while treaty negotiations were going on, an insurrection by radicals in Paris created a short-lived government, the Paris Commune. After its suppression, a harsh peace treaty was implemented: Germany annexed Alsace and half of Lorraine, and France was occupied until a large indemnity was paid. The German empire was established when William I of Prussia was proclaimed German emperor in 1871. The peace was an unstable one, marked by France's determination to recover Alsace-Lorraine and Germany's mounting imperialism, led by Prussian militarism. Their mutual animosity was a driving force that led to World War I.

Franco-Prussian War

Jul 19, 1870

Positive effect, because it leads to Germany finally coming together and being unified

Franco-Prussian War

Jul 19, 1870

The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the 1870 War[7] (19 July 1870 – 10 May 1871) was a conflict between the Second French Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia. Prussia was aided by the North German Confederation, of which it was a member, and the South German states of Baden, Württemberg and Bavaria. The complete Prussian and German victory brought about the final unification of Germany under King Wilhelm I of Prussia. It also marked the downfall of Napoleon III and the end of the Second French Empire, which was replaced by the French Third Republic. As part of the settlement, the territory of Alsace-Lorraine was taken by Prussia to become a part of Germany, which it would retain until the end of World War I when it was given back to France in the Treaty of Versailles.The conflict was a culmination of years of tension between the two nations, which finally came to a head over the issue of a Hohenzollern candidate for the vacant Spanish throne, following the deposition of Isabella II in 1868. The public release of the Ems Dispatch, which played up alleged insults between the Prussian king and the French ambassador, inflamed public opinion on both sides. France mobilized, and on 19 July declared war on Prussia only, but the other German states quickly joined on Prussia's side.The superiority of the Prussian and German forces was soon evident, due in part to efficient use of railways and superior Krupp steel artillery. Prussia had the fourth densest rail network in the world; France had the fifth.[8] A series of swift Prussian and German victories in eastern France culminated in the Battle of Sedan, at which Napoleon III was captured with his whole army on 2 September. Yet this did not end the war, as the Third Republic was declared in Paris on 4 September 1870, and French resistance continued under the Government of National Defence and later Adolphe Thiers.Over a five-month campaign, the German armies defeated the newly recruited French armies in a series of battles fought across northern France. Following a prolonged siege, Paris fell on 28 January 1871. The siege is also notable for the first use of anti-aircraft artillery, a Krupp piece built specifically to shoot down the hot air balloons being used by the French as couriers. Ten days earlier, the German states had proclaimed their union under the Prussian king, uniting Germany as a nation-state, the German Empire. The final Treaty of Frankfurt was signed 10 May 1871, during the time of the Paris Commune uprising of 1871.

German Empire

Jan 18, 1871

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German Empire

Jan 18, 1871

http://ts3.mm.bing.net/th?id=H.4843143718308698&w=298&h=180&c=7&rs=1&pid=1.7

German Empire

Jan 18, 1871

http://ts3.mm.bing.net/th?id=H.4530255409840522&w=205&h=171&c=7&rs=1&pid=1.7

German Empire

Jan 18, 1871

The German Empire (German: Deutsches Reich,[1] called by some German historians as Kaiserlich Deutsches Reich or Kaiserreich) refers to Germany from the unification of Germany and proclamation of William I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871 to 1918, when it became a federal republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of William II (28 November 1918). Deutsches Reich remained the official name of Germany throughout the Weimar period and most of the Nazi period until 1943, when it was changed to Großdeutsches Reich ("Great German Empire").During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire emerged as one of the most powerful industrial economies in the world and a great power, until it collapsed following its military defeat in World War I and the concurrent November Revolution. The most important bordering states were Imperial Russia in the east, France in the west, and Austria-Hungary in the south.The German Empire consisted of twenty-six constituent territories (if Alsace-Lorraine is included) but the Kingdom of Prussia contained most of the population and most of the territory of the Empire.Contents1 Bismarck's founding of the empire 1.1 Germany emerges as an industrial power2 Constituent states of the Empire3 Linguistic minorities in the German Empire4 Bismarck era 4.1 Foreign policy4.2 Economy4.3 Ideology 4.3.1 Kulturkampf4.3.2 Social reform4.3.3 National unification4.3.4 Kleindeutschland4.4 Germanization4.5 Law5 Year of three emperors6 Wilhelmine era 6.1 Relegitimization of the throne, and Bismarck's resignation6.2 Domestic affairs6.3 Foreign affairs6.4 Middle East6.5 Eastern Europe7 World War I and the end of the empire8 Legacy9 Territorial legacy10 Claims to continued existence11 See also12 References13 Further reading14 External links

German Empire

Jan 18, 1871

The term German Empire (the translation from German of Deutsches Reich) commonly refers to Germany, from its consolidation as a unified nation-state in January 1871, until the abdication of Kaiser (Emperor) Wilhelm II in November 1918. Germans, when referring to the Reich in this period under the Kaisers, typically use the term Kaiserreich. Sometimes in English (but rarely in German) "the Second Reich" is used, based on counting the Holy Roman Empire as the first German empire (and, as Nazi ideology insisted, Nazi Germany as the third).It should, however be noted that Deutsches Reich was the state's official name both in this period and until the occupation of Nazi Germany in 1945) that ended World War II in Europe; thus the next two articles of the History of Germany series (see the box near the upper right corner of this page) also cover the official Deutsches Reich.

German Empire

Jan 18, 1871

The German Empire is and was the official term used to refer to Germany from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871 to 1918, when it became a German federal republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of Wilhelm II (28 November 1918).The term Second Reich is sometimes applied to the period from 1871 to 1918 although, after the collapse of Adolf Hitler's Third Reich, the term has generally fallen out of popularity, and is now most commonly called the German Empire or Imperial Germany. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire emerged as the third most powerful industrial economy on earth and a formidable great power, until it collapsed following its military defeat in World War I and the concurrent November Revolution. The most important bordering states were Imperial Russia in the east, France in the west, and Austria-Hungary in the south.

German Empire

Jan 18, 1871

Positive effect, it unified all the German states except for Austria, and led to the Kaiser, the Bundesrat, and the Reichstag

German Empire

Jan 18, 1871

The German colonial empire was an overseas area formed in the late nineteenth century as part of the Hohenzollern dynasty's German Empire. Short-lived colonial efforts by individual German states had occurred in preceding centuries, but Imperial Germany's colonial efforts began in 1883. The German colonial empire ended with the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 following World War I when its territories were confiscated and distributed to the victors under the new system of mandates set up by the League of Nations. Initially reluctant to enter the race for colonies because of its tradition of expansion within the European space, Germany's renewed attempt to conquer Europe in World War I resulted in loss of its overseas possessions. At various times, Germany (as the Holy Roman Empire) had included Northern Italy, Austria, Switzerland, Holland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, what is now the Czech Republic, Slovenia, Belgium and parts of Poland. Parallels have been made between use of death camps during the revolt in German West Africa 1904-1905 and Adolf Hitler's "final solution" to what he called the "Jewish problem." The colonial territories were ruled in the same way that Germany was governed, more or less from the top down. On the other hand, Germany's disengagement from colonialism took place in such a way that protracted wars of independence were avoided. Germany's history in the twentieth century resulted in reflection on the colonial experience receiving less attention than it has had in other former colonial powers. Instead, Germany's role in two World Wars and the Holocaust has dominated thinking in terms of re-negotiating national identity.

German Empire

Jan 18, 1871

The German Empire (German: Deutsches Reich colloquially Deutsches Kaiserreich) is the name conventionally given in English to the German state from the time of the proclamation of William I (German: Wilhelm I) of Prussia as German Emperor (January 18, 1871) to the abdication of William II (Wilhelm II) (November 9, 1918). The official name of the state in German was Deutsches Reich, but this continued in official use until 1943 and hence does not exclusively refer to the period of imperial rule. The phrase Second Reich is also sometimes applied to this period in English. The term was popularised by Arthur Moeller van den Bruck in the 1920s, and drew an explicit link with the earlier Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, as well as underlining his desire for the establishment of a "Third Reich". This latter term was subsequently adopted during the time of Nazi rule for propaganda purposes.

German Empire

Jan 18, 1871

The German Empire is and was the official term used to refer to Germany from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871 to 1918, when it became a German federal republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of Wilhelm II (28 November 1918).The term Second Reich is sometimes applied to the period from 1871 to 1918 although, after the collapse of Adolf Hitler's Third Reich, the term has generally fallen out of popularity, and is now most commonly called the German Empire or Imperial Germany. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire emerged as the third most powerful industrial economy on earth and a formidable great power, until it collapsed following its military defeat in World War I and the concurrent November Revolution. The most important bordering states were Imperial Russia in the east, France in the west, and Austria-Hungary in the south.