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1469
Isabella & Ferdinand unify Spain
The marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile in 1469, and their subsequent joint rule, laid the foundation for the unification of Spain, uniting the kingdoms of Aragon and Castile into a single, powerful entity. -
Period: 1509 to 1547
Henry VIII resigns in England
Henry VIII did not resign as king of England; he died in 1547 after a long reign, and his actions, particularly his break with the Catholic Church, led to the English Reformation and the establishment of the Church of England. -
Period: 1558 to
Elizabeth I reigns England
Queen Elizabeth I reigned as the monarch of England from 1558 to 1603, a period known as the Elizabethan era, which is often considered a golden age in English history, marked by artistic and cultural flourishing. -
Edict of Nantes
granted religious tolerance to French Protestants (Huguenots) and ended the French Wars of Religion, establishing a framework for coexistence between Catholics and Protestants -
Don Quixote is published
Don Quixote, the full title being The Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha, is a Spanish novel by Miguel de Cervantes. It was originally published in two parts, in 1605 and 1615. Considered a founding work of Western literature, it is often said to be the first modern novel. -
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Thirty Years War
The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) was a devastating series of wars primarily in Central Europe, initially a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics, but later evolving into a broader political struggle involving most of Europe's major powers. -
Petition of Right signed
The Petition of Right, a significant English constitutional document, was passed on June 7, 1628, by Parliament and signed by King Charles I, asserting fundamental rights and limiting royal power. -
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the long parliament
The Long Parliament was the English Parliament summoned in November 1640 by King Charles I, lasting until 1660, and known for its role in the English Civil War and the establishment of the Commonwealth Republic. -
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Louis XIV reigns as king of France
Louis XIV, known as the Sun King, reigned as King of France from 1643 until his death in 1715, a period of 72 years, the longest reign in French history. -
Peace of Westphalia is signed
The Peace of Westphalia, a series of treaties signed in 1648 in the Westphalian cities of Münster and Osnabrück, ended the Thirty Years' War and the Eighty Years' War, establishing key principles of modern international relations, including state sovereignty and non-interference in domestic affairs. -
Thomas Hobbes publishes “Leviathan”
Thomas Hobbes published "Leviathan" in 1651, a seminal work of political philosophy that explored the nature of government and the social contract, arguing for a strong, unified sovereign to maintain order. -
Period: to
Charles II regions England
Charles II, King of England, Scotland, and Ireland, reigned during the Restoration period (1660-1685) following the English Civil War and the period of the Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell. He oversaw the establishment of Restoration colonies, including the Carolinas, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania. -
Period: to
Peter the Great reigns as czar of Russia
Peter the Great, born Peter Alekseyevich Romanov, reigned as Tsar of Russia from 1682 until his death in 1725, later becoming the first Emperor of Russia in 1721, and is known for his extensive reforms and efforts to modernize and westernize the country. -
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Glorious Revolution
The Glorious Revolution, a series of events in 1688-89, saw the deposition of King James II and the ascension of William and Mary, leading to a constitutional monarchy and a shift in power towards Parliament. -
The English Bill of Rights signed
The English Bill of Rights, signed in 1689, was a landmark document that limited the power of the monarchy and established certain rights and liberties for citizens, including freedom of speech in Parliament and the right to bear arms. -
John Locke publishes “Two Treaties of Government”
John Locke published "Two Treatises of Government" in 1690, a work that became influential, particularly the Second Treatise, which defended natural rights and limited government, ideas that resonated with the American Revolutionaries. -
Daniel Dafoe publishes “Robinson Crusoe”
a young man, Robinson Crusoe, defies his family to pursue a life at sea, eventually becoming shipwrecked and stranded on a deserted island where he survives for 28 years, learning to adapt and eventually encountering a native whom he names Friday -
Jonathan Swift publishes “Gulliver’s Travels”
The full title of the book is "Travels into Several Remote Nations of the World, in Four Parts, by Lemuel Gulliver, First a Surgeon of a Ship, and then a Captain of his own". -
Period: to
Frederick II reigns Prussia
Frederick II, known as Frederick the Great, reigned as King of Prussia from 1740 until his death in 1786, transforming the kingdom into a major European power through military victories, reforms, and his patronage of the arts and Enlightenment. -
Baron de Montesquieu publishes “The Spirit of Laws”
Baron de Montesquieu published "The Spirit of Laws" (De l'esprit des lois) in 1748, a seminal work in political theory and jurisprudence that explored different forms of government and the separation of powers. -
Period: to
Denis Diderot publishes his “Encyclopedia”
Denis Diderot, along with Jean le Rond d'Alembert, edited and published the Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers (Encyclopedia, or a Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Crafts) between 1751 and 1772, a monumental work representing the Enlightenment and aiming to compile all human knowledge. -
Period: to
Seven Years War
The Seven Years' War (1756-1763), also known as the French and Indian War in North America, was a global conflict involving most of the European great powers, primarily fought in Central Europe and with major theaters in North America, Western Europe, and South Asia. It resulted in significant territorial shifts, with Britain emerging as a dominant global power and France losing much of its overseas empire. -
Voltaire publishes “Candid”
Voltaire published Candide simultaneously in five countries no later than 15 January 1759, although the exact date is uncertain. Seventeen versions of Candide from 1759, in the original French, are known today, and there has been great controversy over which is the earliest. -
Period: to
George III reigns England
George III reigned as King of Great Britain and Ireland from 1760 to 1820, a period marked by the American Revolution, the rise of the British Empire, and his own eventual mental decline and the establishment of his son as regent. -
Jean Jacque Rousseau publishes “Social Contract”
Jean-Jacques Rousseau published "The Social Contract" in 1762, a pivotal work in political philosophy that explores the concept of legitimate political authority and the relationship between the individual and the state, arguing for a social contract based on the general will of the people. -
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Catherine Great reigns Russia
Catherine the Great, born Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst, reigned as Empress of Russia from 1762 to 1796, a period marked by significant territorial expansion, cultural reforms, and Russia's rise as a major European power. -
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Joseph II reigns Austria
Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor and ruler of the Habsburg lands, reigned from 1765 to 1790, initially as co-ruler with his mother, Maria Theresa, and later as sole ruler, implementing significant reforms and being known as an "enlightened despot". -
Boston Massacre
The Boston Massacre occurred on March 5, 1770, when British soldiers fired on a group of colonists in Boston, killing five and wounding others. -
Boston Tea Party
The Boston Tea Party, a pivotal act of defiance against British rule, took place on the night of December 16, 1773, and lasted for approximately three hours, between 7:00 PM and 10:00 PM. -
Period: to
Intolerable Acts
The "Intolerable Acts," also known as the Coercive Acts, were a series of punitive laws passed by the British Parliament in 1774 to punish the Massachusetts colony for the Boston Tea Party, ultimately fueling colonial resistance and leading to the American Revolution. -
Battle of Lexington & Concord
The Battles of Lexington and Concord, fought on April 19, 1775, were the first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War, marking the outbreak of armed conflict between British forces and colonial militias in Massachusetts. -
Adam Smith publishes “Wealth of Nations”
Adam Smith's seminal work, "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations," more commonly known as "The Wealth of Nations," -
Declaration of Independence signed
The Declaration of Independence, adopted on July 4, 1776, was officially signed on August 2, 1776, by 56 delegates to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia, declaring the Thirteen Colonies as free and independent states. -
Battle of Yorktown
The Battle of Yorktown, a decisive victory in the American Revolutionary War, saw a combined force of American and French troops, led by General George Washington, trap and force the surrender of British General Charles Cornwallis and his army in Yorktown, Virginia, on October 19, 1781. -
Treaty of Paris
The Treaty of Paris, signed on September 3, 1783, formally ended the American Revolutionary War and recognized the United States as an independent nation. The treaty also established the boundaries of the new nation, addressed issues like Loyalist rights and debt repayment, and stipulated the withdrawal of British troops from American territory. -
Tennis Court Oath
The Tennis Court Oath, a pivotal event in the French Revolution, occurred on June 20, 1789, when representatives of the Third Estate (commoners) vowed not to disband until a written constitution was established for France, marking a significant step towards the revolution. -
US Constitution ratified
The US Constitution was ratified on June 21, 1788, when New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify, making it the official framework for the government of the United States. -
Declaration of the Rights of Man
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, set by France's National Constituent Assembly in 1789, is a human and civil rights document from the French Revolution; the French title can be translated in the modern era as "Declaration of Human and Civic Rights". -
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Women’s march on Versailles
The march was sparked by widespread discontent in Paris due to high bread prices and food scarcity, with women in the marketplaces leading the initial protests. -
Declaration of the Rights of Woman written
The "Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen," written by Olympe de Gouges in 1791, was a response to the male-centric "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen" and advocated for women's rights and equality during the French Revolution. -
National Convention Formed
The National Convention was a revolutionary assembly in France, formed in September 1792 after the monarchy's fall, that governed France until October 1795, abolishing the monarchy and declaring France a republic. -
Mary Wollstonecraft publishes “A Vindication of the Rights of Woman”
Mary Wollstonecraft wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), a trailblazing feminist work which argues that the educational system deliberately trained women to be frivolous and incapable and that if girls were allowed the same advantages as boys, women would be not only exceptional wives and mothers. -
Period: to
Radical Phase (French Revolution)
The radical phase of the French Revolution, roughly from August 1792 to July 1794, saw the rise of radical factions, the execution of King Louis XVI, and the Reign of Terror, a period of intense violence and political repression. -
Period: to
Reign of Terror (French Revolution)
The Reign of Terror, a period of state-sanctioned violence during the French Revolution (1793-1794), saw the arrest, trial, and execution of thousands suspected of counter-revolutionary activity, orchestrated by the Committee of Public Safety led by Maximilien Robespierre. -
Committee of Public Safety created
The Committee of Public Safety was set up on April 6, 1793, during one of the crises of the Revolution, when France was beset by foreign and civil war. -
Five Man Directory created
The "Five Man Directory," also known as the French Directory, was a five-member executive committee that governed France from November 1795 to November 1799, established by the Constitution of 1795 to provide stability after the Reign of Terror. -
battle of austerlitz
The Battle of Austerlitz, also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors, was a decisive victory for Napoleon's Grande Armée against a combined Austro-Russian force in 1805, marking a key event in the Napoleonic Wars. -
Napoleon Bonaparte becomes Emperor
Napoleon Bonaparte became Emperor of the French, Napoleon I, on December 2, 1804, after a French Senate proclamation and a plebiscite, following his rise to power during the French Revolution and his role as First Consul. -
Battle of Trafalgar
The Battle of Trafalgar, a decisive naval victory for the British Royal Navy, took place on October 21, 1805, off Cape Trafalgar, Spain, during the Napoleonic Wars, securing British naval dominance for over a century. -
Period: to
Battle of Leipzig
The Battle of Leipzig, also known as the Battle of the Nations, was fought from 16 to 19 October 1813 at Leipzig, Saxony. The Coalition armies of Austria, Prussia, Sweden, and Russia, led by Tsar Alexander I and Karl von Schwarzenberg, decisively defeated the Grande Armée of French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte. -
Napoleon exiled to Elba
Following his defeat in 1814, Napoleon Bonaparte was exiled to the island of Elba, a small island in the Tyrrhenian Sea, where he ruled for about a year before escaping and returning to France for his "Hundred Days" before his final defeat and exile to St. Helena. -
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Congress of Vienna
The Congress of Vienna, held in 1814-1815, was a meeting of European powers convened after the Napoleonic Wars to establish a lasting peace and redraw the map of Europe, aiming for a balance of power and to restore the pre-revolutionary order. -
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Napoleon exiled to St. Helena
After his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, Napoleon Bonaparte was exiled to the remote British-held island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean, where he died in 1821. -
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Sabastian Bach height of his career
Sebastian Bach's "height" of his career, as the frontman of Skid Row, spanned from 1987 to 1996, a period marked by mainstream success and the band's iconic status in the hard rock/heavy metal scene. -
Storming of the Bastille
On July 14, 1789, a crowd of Parisians, seeking weapons and ammunition, stormed the Bastille, a medieval fortress and political prison, symbolizing the end of the Ancien Régime and marking a turning point in the French Revolution.