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In the 13th century the Ottoman Turks formed and had a very steady foundation and a great army. They recruited Christians and converted them to Islam. They were also some of the first to begin to master the gun technology. They gained a lot of land and mainly advanced northward.
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During her reign in 1558 Elizabeth Tudor had a small island nation form into the protestant capital. While she was dealing with the problems her sister, who was catholic left her. She got rid of laws that favored Catholics. She made herself supreme governor of state and church. She was also balancing power between spain and france in order to keep both equal. Spain's conflict ended up being to large though.
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Calvinist and Catholicism became violent in 1560. They wanted to win over people to make them convert and belittle each other. They were the main war over religion that affected Europe. The war was much more than religion, it also involved social and political forces.
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Catholic French kings prosecuted Protestants, but it still didn't stop them. Huguenots were a small fraction of the population but about half of them were nobles. They could fund a large army, their loyalty was to the North and Northwest part of France. The battle lasted 30 years until Henery IV knew protesants wouldn't be accepted by catholics so he converted. He issued the Edict of Nanes that declared catholism the religion of France.
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In the 17th century people started to rebel and civil wars broke out. The wars between the kings and Parliament to determine government positions. The war grew between cavilers- who supported the kings and the roundheads- who supported the parliament. They fought for a long time until nobles called another king to step in. William of Orange invaded England and the king retreated and there was no bloodshed- this was know as the glorious revolution.
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Europeans first came to India due to trades. Then They set up stands and posts and settled in. The British were some of the most successful because they had a very smart general and leader. There were many wars between Europeans over the indian land.
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King Phillip IV was the closest to being a complete monarch. Unlike Louis the XIV however he didn't have as much power over Spanish nobles. The rise of Prussia was much attributed to Fredrick William creating a very powerful army. There was no real king who controlled everything due to nobles who had say.
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The mogul Indians were Muslims in a largely Hindu population. Women played a huge role in many areas, even political advice. Many Hindu practices remained the same under Monful rule such as young marriage. They also made many technical advancements in architecture like the Taj Mahal.