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Homer Plessy versus Louisiana
In 1890, the State of Louisiana issued The Seperate Car Act. Homer Plessy challenged this law with the Comite des Citoyens behind him. Plessy challenged the local and state courts, and eventually brought his case to the Supreme court. It was unanimous against Homer,saying the facilities were "seperate but equal". This ruling was used against many segregation cases brought to the Supreme Court until 1954.
Seperate but Equal -
Number 42
Jackie Robinson was born in Cairo, Georgia; and later became the first Black player in the MLB. He was encouraged by his older brother (a silver medialist in the Olympics) to get into sports, and he joined 4 in High School. After playing for UCLA and being discharged from the army, Robinson worked his way through nonviolence and dedication to a position on the Brooklyn Dodgers, where he inspired many.
Jackie Robinson Statistics -
The Missisippi Mesiah
Medgar Evers was a field secretary for the NAACP that helped open the way for higher educated minorities. Evers' major contribution, where he applied to the University of Missisippi, but was denied because of this race. Since it was a public school, the NAACP used Brown V Board's resolution which prevented segregated schools. These actions put a target on his back, which resulted in his assasination.
Medger Evers Facts -
The One Who Marched Against Fear
James Meredith sought to test Kennedy's willingness to enforce civil protections for minorities. Meredith began by applying to the University of Missippi, was denied twice, but was eventuially accepted due to federal intevention. He also went on his own journey through the South, which he called "The March Against Fear" to influence black people to vote. He was shot and wounded on the second day of his journey.
James Meredith Books -
The Congress of Racial Equality
CORE was founded in Chicago under multiple leaders, based upon the teachings and methods of Mahatma Gandi to promote African American civil rights. It orchestrated many events during the Civil RIghts era, such as the Freedom RIdes, desegregating Chicago schools, Freedom Summer, and even the March on Washington.
CORE History -
Heman Sweatt versus Theophilus Painter
Heman Sweatt, a black man, had applied to Texas University's school of Law, but was denied due to his race. However, the "colored" facility was of much inferior quality, which helped him and Thurgood Marshall (A famous civil rights lawyer) win their case in the Supreme Court, desegregating the University of Texas and paving way for Brown v Board's ruling.
Primary Resource -
Oliver Brown versus Topeka Education Board
Linda Brown, a young girl in TOpeka, had to walk 13 blocks to her "colored" school, since she was denied being able to go to the white school, which was 6 blocks away. Her Father, as well as many others, fought the Topeka board of Education. The NAACP, Thurgood Marshall, and integrated schools in other countries allowed for national public school integration.
Court Transcript -
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One Word that Changed America
The NAACP had much more power than the government knew, as proven by the Montgommery Bus boycott. Rosa Parks, a young seamstress and secretary of the NAACP, refused to give up her seat to a white man, as was law and what occured on buses at the time. She was arrested and fined, and the NAACP used this to boycott Montgommery buses. Although many black men and women complied, the boycott lasted for over a year. However, the boycott was ended by actions of the Supreme Court. -
Southern Hospitality
After Brown v. Board's verdict, many Southern representatives feared the future of complete integration. This document, signed by all but 4 Southern Democrats, stated that the ruling was unconstitutional and that the South was willing to fight back against this decision. One of those that did not sign was Lyndon B. Johnson, the president that later signed many of the civil rights bills into law.
Primary Source -
The True Rise of the South
Although a united Black church group was proposed in New York years earlier, Martin Luther King Jr. founded a group from the aftermath of Montgomery to unite civil rights activists through religion in the South. This group was know as the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, with King as it's president. This group organized the March on Washington, protests in Birmingham, and the march from Selma.
SCLC History -
Little Rock's Legendary Nine
Due to pressure from the NAACP, Little Rock's schools system began integration by allowing 9 black student to register for their schools. However, governor Faubus deployed the Arkansas National Guard and physically blocked the door to prevent the students from entering. However, president Eisenhower sent in troops to protect the students from attacks and stop the blockade.
Eyewitness Account -
Greensboro: The Second Step
Four students inspired by Reverend King simply sat down at a white only Lunch counter in Greensboro and began a months-long protest. They were inspired by King's nonviolence and other successful sit-ins, so they engaged in one themselves. They garnered supporters that also sat in with them, both locally and across the South. This also helped gain the respect of neutral Whites, with broadcasts of white brutality.
Website about the Sit Ins -
The Youth's Fight for Rights
During the Greeensboro sit-ins, a congress of Students was formed to perform nonviolent civil rights protests. This group was known as the Student Nonviolent Coordination Commitee, and had a major hand in many civil rights activities and protests. Due to their younger ages, many sympathized with young minorities fighting for civil rights on a daily basis.
The Birth of SNCC -
The Brutality of the Bull
After Boyton v. Virginia outlawed interstate segregation, many members of CORE and SNCC pushed their luck by riding through the South, challenging state segregation laws. However, police "leaders" such as Bull Connor turned their back when the Klu Klux Klan and other white supremacists beat and firebombed the two busses in Birmingham and Montgommery.
Documentary about the Freedom Riders -
Freedom Rides Map
This map shows the route in which the Freedom Riders rode and the event that occured on their journey. -
Hope From a Jail Cell
The SCLC organized multiple boycotts and sit ins, in which many were arrested and punished through beatings and exposure to fire hoses. Even children were arrested and sprayed. After being jailed, King wrote in response to an article regarding the SCLC's actions in Birmingham. This was later published and helped unite and excite civil rights activists.
Primary Source -
I Have A Dream
Although there were previously plans for a black-oriented and lead march on Washington, the tension was defused. Until Reverend King came out of the woodwork and lead the march. This operation was orchestrated by leaders of the AFL-CIO and the four major civil rights groups. King's speech and meetings with political leaders helped ensure civil rights bills would pass into law.
Rev. King's Famous Speech -
March on Washington Map
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Innocent Blood
On September 15th, tragedy struck when several KKK members set up dynamite to explode under the steps of 16th Street Baptist Church. This explosion took the life of 6 young girls and 23 injuries. This church was targeted, as it served as a rallying point for the civil rights operations in Birmingham. This helped influence congressmen to vote for the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
Archived Newspaper Article -
Jim Crow's Last Stand
The 24th Ammendment was a responce to poll taxes, a branch of Jim Crow laws that were constitutionally legal until this ammended the constitution. Poll taxes targeted the poor and African Americans, who were usually disadvantaged, Although it was condemned by many presidents, the Supreme court ruled that voting was a privliedge given by the states.
24th Ammendment -
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Operation Freedom Summer
After the March on Washington, the four major civil rights groups collaborated once again, this time in Missisippi. Missisippi had the lowest percentage of African American registered voters in the country, and through voluntier work, they attempted to change this. Although at leasst 4000 were resgistered, the volunteers suffered heavy moral loss through violence from white supremacists. Three men were killed in a massive gathering, and one of the offenders was not convicted until 2004. -
The Beginning of the End
After John F. Kennedy's address regarding civil rights seemed like a visible end to legal segregation, civil rights activists would have a long fight ahead. Afte President Johnson signing the bill into law, many leaders saw the bill as unsatisfactory, as many thought the bill didn't do enough and would not be enforced.
Civil Rights Act of 1964 -
قوة سوداء
Malcom X was a young leader that contrasted Reverend King's nonviolent protests and believed that minorities should take their civil rights through any means necessasry, including violence. He also believed in many Islam concepts, such as the seperation of races instead of integration. Malcom X converted and denounced his old form of Islam, which lead to his assasination by members of the Nation of Islam.
Malcom X's Final Speech -
Bloody Sunday
With Jim Crow laws still prevalent in the South, SNCC teamed up with the SCLC to march to Montgommery, Alabama and demand equal voting rights. There were three official marches, with the first two ending in failure and with blood on the streets. The brutallity of the police in Selma helped get the Voting Rights Act through Congress nearly immediately.
Eyewitness Account -
Selma To Montgomery Map
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Triple V
After years of poll taxes, literacy tests, and other laws that used loopholes in the 14th and 15th ammendments, the federal government decided to act in the wake of the March of Selma. This bill struck down anything interfering with one's right to vote, and has been updated over the years and is still active today.
Voting Rights Act of 1965 -
Map of Major Civil Rights Events
This is a map showing key civil rights event and how they affected the number of minority citizens voting. -
The Last Straw
During the waning hours of the Civil RIghts movement, a group in Oakland formed known as the Black Panther Party. They were formed to defend other African Americans by owning legal firearms and observing cops. They became quite popular and engaged in social programs, but they eventually split up due to COINTELPRO, and FBI operation by J Edgar Hoover.
Black Panthers Documentary -
Death of a Hero
Reverend King and his associates came to Memphis to support striking workers, but King felt discouraged. He gave the last speech of his life,and was said to be the most powerful of his speeches. A day later, King was assasinated by James Ray, and many in the nation saw King as their last hope for peaceful negotiations. Eyewitness Account/Primary Resource
