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The Peace of Westphalia Was Signed
The Peace of Westphalia was a series of treaties that ended the Thirty Years' War and other wars of religion. It is identified as being the beginning of the modern international system. Inter-state aggression was to be held in check by the balance of powers, which later was the cause of numerous conflicts. Westphalian principles became central to international law. -
Thomas Hobbes publishes "Leviathan"
"Leviathan" argues that civil peace and social unity are best achieved using the establishment of a commonwealth through social contract. Hobbes' ideas on the role of government prompted more investigations into politics. After the American Revolution, his ideas influenced federalists in arguments to adopt the new written Constitution. -
John Locke publishes "Two Treatises of Government"
"Two Treatises of Government" is a work of political philosophy. It outlines Locke's ideas for a more civilized society based on natural rights. It argues that all men are created equal in the state of nature by God. It also states that if any government ruling without the consent of the people should be overthrown. These theories were instrumental in causing the American Revolution and other rebellions based on human rights. It established many of the laws outlined in the U.S. Constitution. -
Montesquieu publishes "The Spirit of Laws"
"The Spirit of Laws" was a treatise on political theory, as well as a pioneering work in comparative law. It argued that the executive, legislative, and judicial functions of government should be assigned to different bodies, so that the actions of one branch can be restrained by the other branches when necessary. This idea, the separation of powers, was introduced in the formation of the United States of America and is still in practice today. -
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The Completion of the "Encyclopedia" in Paris, France
It was published in 17 large volumes. Edited by Diderot, it was a great compilation of scientific, technical, and historical knowledge, carrying strong undertones of criticism of the existing society and institutions and epitomizing the skeptical, rational, and scientific spirit of the age. It was the first encyclopedia to have a distinguished list of contributors and was conceived as a positive force for social progress. -
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Catherine the Great Reigns as Tsarina in Russia
Catherine the Great approached political issues with a strong practical sense and great energy. She was one of the main builders of modern Russia, territorially speaking. She continued to recognize the standards of the Enlightenment throughout her reign. Catherine trained Alexander I, who, through her teachings, was destined to be immensely impactful in the future of Europe. She perfectly exhibits enlightened despotism, which foreshadowed the coming age of revolution. -
Romanticism originated in Europe
Romanticism was an artistic, literary, musical, and intellectual movement. Followers believed advances made by the Enlightenment were creating an oppressive, conformist society. They thought science and rationality could never hope to truly understand the world and the human personality. They moved away from the ideas of the time, slowly putting an end to the Enlightenment. -
Prussia, Austria, and Russia impose the First Partition of Poland
Frederick the Great created the partition to prevent an Austro-Russian war. Also, the Partition was meant to preserve the balance of power between the three most powerful neighboring countries at the time. It took away the outermost territories of Poland and started the process of disassembling the country. -
Pugachev leads a rebellion of the lower classes in Russia
Emelian Pugachev announced himself as the true tsar, Peter III, and led an insurrection in the Urals against Catherine the Great. He had the sympathies of thousands of serfs living in Moscow, terrifying the upper classes that also lived there. The armies sent against him were unsuccessful at first, but famine dispersed the rebels. His rebellion was the most violent peasant uprising in the history of Russia, and the most formidable mass upheaval in Europe before 1789. -
Adam Smith publishes "The Wealth of Nations"
Smith argued that it was unnecessary to have an empire in order to build up a nation's wealth. He attacked mercantilism. He believed a nation's wealth was really the stream of goods and services that it created, a concept that gained immense support during the Enlightenment. This book changed the way people thought about economics and influenced it for centuries to come. -
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The Revolutionary War Achieves American Independence from Britain
The Declaration of Independence was a justification of rebellion against an established authority. Democratic equality made huge advances through the building of the states. American leaders shared fully in the humane and secular spirit of the Age of Enlightenment. The American Revolution was also a direct cause of the French Revolution. The establishment of the United States proved that many of the ideas of the Enlightenment were practical. -
The Start of the French Revolution
The French Revolution was the most momentous upheaval of the entire revolutionary age. The ideas of the French Revolution spread far beyond France and influenced the development that followed it of political parties and ideological conflicts. While the French Revolution was, in itself, significant, the start of this war is considered the end of the new way of thinking section of the Enlightenment and began the part filled with more rebellions and revolutions. -
The Third Partition of Poland
Prussia proposed the first partition of Poland in 1772, cutting away the outer territories and preventing an Austro-Russian war. The second partition was in 1793 and involved Russia's tsarina, Catherine the Great, invading the country in order to destroy the newly formed constitution. However, it was the third partition that fully divided what remained of Poland and ceased its existence as a political entity.
