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Meyer v. Nebraska
Along with Farrington v. Tokushige, this was one of the early court cases that established states' authority to determine the language of instruction in public schools, but protected the right of the parents to organize heritage language classes for their children. -
Farrington v. Tokushige
Along with Meyer v. Nebraska, this was one of the early court cases that established states' authority to determine the language of instruction in public schools, but protected the right of the parents to organize heritage language classes for their children. -
Brown v. Board of Education
One of the pivotal segregation cases that determined ELLs can not be separated from other students under the guise of "helping" them learn English. This ruling made it clear that states are responsible for providing students with equal opportunities. -
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)
Prior to this Act, schools ignored the needs of language learners, and many times students were left to "sink or swim". Congress passed the ESEA - some of the key components of this Act included funds, policies and procedures that targeted students of low-income families. -
NEA Conference and "The Invisible Minority" Published
The NEA hosted a conference on the education of Spanish-speaking children and a report titled "The Invisible Minority....pero no vencibles" was published. This report outlined areas of concern and outlined innovative education programs currently in use. This report shed light on some of the issues and prompted change, including the 1968 Bilingual Education Act (1968) -
Bilingual Education Act (BEA)
Title VII of the ESEA, or the Bilingual Education Act (BEA) was the first federal law to address the needs of students using English. The BEA led to several amendments. -
Lau v. Nichols
This Supreme Court ruling was the most important court decision regarding ELL education. This case focused on Chinese American students who were placed in mainstream classrooms to "sink or swim" but the court favored the students because simply providing books, teachers, etc. for students that do not understand English is not sufficient equality in treatment. -
Castaneda v. Pickard
This court ruling helped successfully create a three-pronged test for determining whether schools are taking "appropriate action" to address the needs of ELLs. -
Proposition 227
California's Proposition 227 was one of the English for the Children Initiatives, which placed restrictions on bilingual education programs. -
Proposition 203
Arizona's Proposition 203 was one of the English for the Children Initiatives, which placed restrictions on bilingual education programs. -
No Child Left Behind (NCLB)
NCLB was President George W. Bush's plan for the reauthorization of the ESEA, Title VII was replaced with Title III - Language Instruction for Limited English Proficient and Immigrant Students. This federal law required ELLs to be placed in "language instruction education programs". Students were placed in programs in order to attain English proficiency, and this was aided through the child's native language. The state would then have measureable achievement objectives to meet AYP. -
World-class Instructional Design and Assessment (WIDA)
This state consortium, led by Wisconsin, was established to develop English language proficiency standards and assessments to comply with Title III of NCLB. In connection with the Center for Applied Linguistics, the English language proficiency assessment was developed. -
Question 2 Initiative
Massachusetts' Question 2 was one of the English for the Children Initiatives, which placed restrictions on bilingual education programs. -
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) and Race to the Top (RTTT)
The Obama administration set forth educational reforms through the ARRA in 2009. Included was the Race to the Top (RTTT) which provided grants for states to begin reform. The concerns for ELLs was that it was based on high-stakes testing with teacher scores being tied to these tests, and teachers of ELLs may be unfairly penalized. -
Common Core State Standards (CCSS)
CCSS is a state-led effort initiated by the National Governors Association and the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) to develop language arts and math standards that states voluntarily adopt. These standards are meant to raise the bar in academic rigors. By 2014, 43 states had adopted the standards. These standards do not specifically address ELLs but are designed to develop the language skills of all students. -
Obama introduces ESEA Flexibility
Many states were failing to make AYP through NCLB, so Obama invited states to apply for ESEA. This impacted ELLs because it offered an alternative system for accountability including acknowledgement of making students college and career ready, and use of different assessments. -
California establishes Seal of Biliteracy
California's Proposition 227 (1998), Arizona's Proposition 203 (2000) and Massachusetts' Question 2 (2002) were parts of the English for the Children Initiatives, which placed restrictions on bilingual education programs, yet bilingual education is thriving even in these states. In 2012, California was the first state in the country to establish the Seal of Biliteracy to recognize bilingual skills of graduates on their high school diplomas. -
ELPA21 Constortium
The English Language Proficiency Assessment for the 21st Century Consortium (ELPA21) was given a 6.3 million dollar federal grant for the creation of a common computer-based English language proficiency assessment based on the English Language Proficiency Standards and aligned with the CCSS. -
Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) passed
ESSA provided resources to states and school districts to "implement and sustain" high-quality language instruction programs to increase and develop English proficiency. This Act required states to measure progress and provide assistance to ineffective schools.
