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World War II - Division of Visual Aids for War Training
During World War II, large-scale training was needed to equip troops. Instructional videos and pictures were used to make this an efficient process (Reiser, 2017, p. 10). -
American Institutes of Research Founded
Following the work of many psychologists and educators studying behaviors and training in WWII, the American Institutes of Research (AIR) is founded by psychologist John C. Flanagan. AIR's research projects eventually contribute to screening, training, and assessing in multiple fields (AIR, 2024). -
Educational Television
The FCC designates over 200 television channels to be for educational purposes (Reiser & Dempsey, 2017, p. 10). Throughout the 1950s and 60s, use of the channels increase to transmit educational programming to learners of all ages. -
Skinner, Behaviorism, & Programmed Instruction
Psychologist B.F. Skinner publishes the article "The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching" based on his human behavior studies. This begins Skinner's work in programmed instruction, which uses behavioral techniques to guide learners through instruction (Reiser & Dempsey, 2014, p. 13). Skinner's "teaching machines" were not realistic for producing in large enough numbers to be useful, but the process will be widely adopted with the evolving technology of personal computers. -
Bloom's Taxonomy & Objectives
The book Taxonomy of Educational Objectives is published. One of the authors, Benjamin Bloom, becomes known for the hierarchical ordering of learning outcomes now known as Bloom's Taxonomy that aids in designing learning objectives along the path to assessing partial and full mastery of a topic (Reiser & Dempsey, 2017, p. 14). -
Gagne, Cognitivism, & Instructional Design
Psychologist Robert Gagne publishes The Conditions of Learning, which describes different domains of learning, the conditions necessary for learning, and the nine events of instruction needed to promote successful learning. Gagne and others in the field begin to define this systematic approach to instruction as "instructional design" (Reiser & Dempsey, 2017, pp. 14-15). -
Formative & Summative Evaluation
Michael Scriven, Susan Markle, and others design procedures for evaluating instructional materials and their usefulness in effective teaching. The revision of materials during tryout periods is called formative evaluation while testing materials in their final form is called summative evaluation (Reiser & Dempsey, 2017, pp. 14-15). -
PLATO, TICCIT, & Computer-Assisted Instruction
Throughout the 1960s, computer-assisted instruction (CAI) devices were developed. They came into widespread popularity in the 1970s with systems like PLATO and TICCIT (Reiser-Dempsey, 2017, p. 11). In 1974, the PLATO IV was released with a plasma screen and the ability for up to 1000 devices in the same network (The Grainger College of Engineering, 2020). Real-time chatting features and other programming breakthroughs came about with CAI. -
Vygotsky, Bruner, & Constructivism
Lev Vygotsky, Jerome Bruner, and other educational psychologists continue building on Piaget's constructivist education theories that are much more learner-centered than previous theories. In 1978, Vygotsky & Bruner publish separate articles that provide the foundation for modern-day scaffolding in learning design (McLeod & Guy-Evans, 2024a & 2024b; Lehman, 2018). -
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Reigeluth & Elaboration Theory
Charles Reigeluth publishes a series of articles describing his Elaboration Theory for instruction in 1979 & 1980. Using this theory, instruction is designed to begin with a broad overview of the topic before looking at a detailed view of each concept or step. Initial lessons should begin with simple tasks and concepts with subsequent lessons elaborating on the prior lessons and moving towards more complexity (Pappas, 2014). -
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Rise of the PC
In 1981, IBM releases the first mainstream ready-to-run personal computer (PC). Apple follows up with the Macintosh in 1984, and Microsoft releases the first version of Windows operating system in 1985 (Lehman, 2018). This expands access to computers and programming in all areas as well as bringing them into individual homes. -
The World Wide Web
CERN scientist Tim Berners-Lee develops the World Wide Web to connect scientists around the world. Just two years later, the NSCA at University of Illinois releases the first popular web browser, Mosaic (Lehman, 2018). -
Constructivism & Computers
Educators such as John Bransford and David Jonassen contribute to constructivist education work that describes how computers and technology can be used as tools to aid learners in engagement and problem-solving (Lehman, 2018). -
Merrill's Principles of Instruction & Problem-Based Learning
Continuing in constructivist theories, David Merrill releases his Principles of Instruction in 2002 (Lehman, 2018). The principles are centered in problem-based learning, where a real-world problem provides context for the learning tasks (Kurt, 2022). Done in order, the five principles can be applied to any learning scenario. -
The iPhone
While far from the first cell phone, the launch of the first iPhone in 2007 sets the standard for smart phone devices (Lehman, 2018). The integration of voice, text, and web browsing communication technology with other functionalities narrows down the devices needed by individuals, eventually leading to many relying on smart phones as their main computing, communication, and learning tools today (Reiser-Dempsey, 2017, p. 12). -
MOOCs
In 2011, Stanford released its first three Massively Open Online Courses (MOOCs) with over 160,000 students enrolling in one of the free classes offered (MAUT, 2013). MOOCs gave universities and other educational organizations the ability to offer instruction on a free, global platform. Since then, MOOCs have also risen as a way to offer credits and certifications for paying students. -
From ADDIE to SAM: New Learning Design Models Arise
As learning technology changes, learning design scholars Michael Allen and David Merrill propose new models for instructional design, including the successive approximation model (SAM) and Pebble-in-the-Pond model (Reiser-Dempsey, 2017, pp. 31-41). -
COVID-19 Forces Learning Shifts
The learning design and technology profession becomes incredibly important as the COVID-19 pandemic forces most education to shift to online learning on the fly (Farrell, 2022).