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Nov 19, 1500
First Occupants
Iroquois: Matriarchy -> leadership & decision making was responsibility of women.
Algonquians: Patriarchy -> fathers played vital leadership role. -
Period: Nov 19, 1500 to
Official Power and Countervailing Power
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Period: to
French Regime
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Power Relations between Amerindians and Colonial Administrators
Influence of the aboriginal people on power:
Strategic military alliances: protect economic interests in fur trade.
French & Hurons=allies. Primary ppl. traded w/ French. Fought against Iroquois over control of fur trade territory.
English & Iroquois=allies. Fought against French & Hurons. Almost wiped out Hurons.
Natives were destroyed by Iroquois, so French were forced to collect furs deeper in forest.
Coureurs des bois formed: French settlers who lived w/ Natives & traded w/ Amerindians. -
Power Relations between Church and State
Church is implicated in political decisions because of its role in Sovereign Council.
Priests in charge of parishes & worked as missionaries. Nuns worked in hospitals.
King gets power based on principal of Divine Rights of Kings. King ended monopoly & placed N.F. under Minister of Marine (Colbert). They both decided to implement Royal Government. -
Power Relations between Church and State CONTINUED
Sovereign Council:
Governor - Highest rank, commander of army, deals with external affairs, VETO POWER
Intendant - Most influential, contolled budget of colony, collects taxes, justice, seigniorial system, built roads, set up industries.
Bishop (religious leader) - appointed by Pope, administered over Parish Priests, hospitals, schools, charities.
NOT ON COUNCIL, but had power: Captain of Militia - dealth with issues on seigneries. -
Power Relations between Colony and Mother Country
Influence of decisions made by mother country on power in colony.
Absolute Monarchy: King names administrators of colony & can still reverse decisions they make.
LIFE IN NEW FRANCE
Settlers had happy lives, but lots of work (care for crops, make clothes, prepare for winter).
Since N.F. wasn't developing, settlers became self-dependent.
N.F. different from France, where had very rich & massive number of poor/starving people.
... -
Power Relations between Colony and Mother Country CONTINUED
People of N.F. were very autonomous & by 1760 became distinct set of people called Canadiens (13 colonies becoming Americans).
Therefore, no surprise that they stayed after British Conquest.
Nobility/Elite (Governor)
Bourgeoisie (Seigneurs)
Habitants (Censitaires)
Why'd this happen?
Distance from France: King had less control
Contact with Aboriginals; developped independent spirits & sense of freedom. Many worked/lived with natives. Voyageurs + Coureurs de bois choose way of life -
Great Peace of Montreal
Peace treaty between New France & 40 First Nations of N.A.
French, allied to Hurons & Algonquians, provided 16 yrs of peaceful relations & trade before war started again.
Also called, Grand Settlement of 1701 -
Period: to
British Rule
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British Rule "Intro"
Doc. was signed giving terms under which French would surrender (Articles of Capitulation) & it stated:
French Militia could return home.
French military lay down arms & leave.
People could practice R.C. religion, but Bishop had to leave.
People who stayed, now British subjects.
Only Elite left, since they could afford to. Colony waited under Military Rule of James Murray, until war in Europe ended. -
Treaty of Paris and Royal Proclamation
7 yr war ends. N.F. territory is given to King of England except St. Pierre & Miquelon.
King needed to do something about the new subjects who spoke French. CONSTITUTION put in place to control them & try to change them to be more British.
Called ROYAL PROCLAMATION:
New name: Province of Quebec
Decreases borders to just around St-Lawrence river (rest is Indian Territory). -
Royal Proclamation CONTINUED
Put in civilian government: King appointed Governor who then appointed Executive Council (replaces Sovereign Council) to advise him.
English Criminal (hardcore crimes) & Civil laws (ex: dispute with neighbours) applied.
Unused lands divided by Township System (squares).
No new Bishop allowed.
No R.C. people could hold public office (Test Act), since British didn't want them to. Goal: Control & assimilate French in QC by taking away many of their rights to force them to become more English. -
Royal Proclamation CONTINUED 2
No new French speaking people came, but many Eng. were.
Most of British who came were rich merchants.
1st Governor of this new colony James Murray knew his job of assimilation wouldn't be easy. -
Difficulties of the First Governors CONTINUED
Carleton's reason to be tolerant to the French: wanted their loyalty as Americans (13 colonies) began to demand their independence. -
Difficulties of the First Governors
James Murray found Royal Proclamation unworkable, only 1% of population was English. To male the French R.C. people content, he bent the rules.
Allowed a new Bishop (Briand)
French Civil laws return
Didn't call elected assembly because it'd favour English merchants (another reason for French to get mad).
English merchants opposed Governor's policies & demanded a new one from King. Got Guy Carleton who kept the same policies. -
"No one is happy in the new Province of Quebec"
13 colonies=unhappy, since they had fought to gain control of Ohio Valley & it was denied to them.
British merchants=unhappy, since wanted power through an elected assembly & expected colony to favour English interests.
Canadians didn't like new boundaries. Scared of elected assembly. Uneasy about lack of guarantees to their religion.
Quick summary:
Murray - French -> lucky to have him, but British were fed up of his policies (he's recalled).
Carleton - Quickly adopts same attitude as Murray. -
Quebec Act CONTINUED
Some Americans traded with French, so Britain wanted to place strict control on trade & income taxes.
Blah: American War of Independence. Americans are victorious.
Loyalists (imperialists for Britain) from 13 colonies moved to the only British colony in North America, QC. -
Quebec Act
Guarantees French Canadian loyalty.
Enlarges area of Quebec
Denied an elected assembly
Appointed council
French Civil laws were instated. Tithe (tax) & seigniorial system are back.
Test Act Oath of Allegiance - swear to King you're loyal & could hold office.
THESE FACTORS MADE AMERICANS UPSET
In States:
Up until 1763, Americans needed British protection from French.
Wanted expansion into Ohio Valley.
Britain=unhappy with 13 colonies (didn't give enough in war).
... -
Effects of the Loyalists
36 000 loyalists came to Canada (most settled Maritimes)
6 000 " came to Quebec (" West of Montreal)
English population suddenly increased (1%->10%).
Settled according to Township system.
Gave their settlements English names.
Used to English civil laws & elected assemblies.
Wrote petitions to London for change. After yrs of complaining, got their wish. -
Constitutional Act
Province of Quebec was split in 2 pieces: Upper Canada (up river) & Lower Canada (down river).
Lower Cdn: Mostly French
Upper Cdn: Entirely English
Ottawa River=boundary between them
In Lower Cdn, French kept their religion, civil laws & people could work in office.
In Upper Cdn, Protestants used Township system, English Civil laws. -
Representative Government
The Constitutional Act brought this change in Government.
King
British Parliament
In the Canadas:
Governor General - Appointed by parliament, VETO, commanded forces, called assemblies into session, in charge of administration
Each Canada had:
Lieutenant Governor - Acted as deputy governor
Executive Council - Picked by governor, advised him
Legislative Council (businessmen) - picked, approve/reject laws from assembly
.... -
Representative Government CONTINUED
Legislative Assembly (habitants) - ppl elected every 4 yrs, approve/disapprove taxes, had right to create laws
Ordinary ppl - had say of government for the 1st time (only land-owning men over 21)
1st time ppl could vote & be represented in Canada, this government was a big step forward.
In Upper Canada, the system ran somewhat smooth.
In Lower Cdn, Leg. Assembly was French (wanted to tax English) & those above them were English w/ different interests. Each side use their powers & caused deadlock -
Faults in Representative Government
Leg. Assembly made laws, but shut down by Governor & his council since have VETO
SIDES:
Governors & council members thought about investing money in business & tax property (wanted canals, railways for trade built).
AND
Leg. Assembly wanted to tax goods, not property & didn't want invest in projects useless to them.
Worse in Lower Cdn, where Leg. Assembly was French & constant issues over language. -
The Rebellions of 1837-38
English settled Upper Cdn & Catholic settled Lower Cdn.
Populations: Lower (1791:150 000- 1861:1 152 000)
Upper (":10 000- ":1 396 000)
GROWING DISCONTENT IN LOWER CDN
In repr. gov., those who could be elected held no real power, so tensions grew!
British Party - Controlled councils, spent $ on public works
Parti Canadien (Parti Patriote) - Controlled assembly, power over taxes
Issues: These groups were so different, couldn't negotiate.
Some ppl (Patriotes) began speaking of a rebellion. -
The Rebellions 1837-38 CONTINUED
Bad weather lead to bad harvets>famine>disease.
Assemblies wanted councils to be elected
MORE immigrants were arriving making land/jobs scarce
Patriotes leader=Papineau. In 1838, wrote 92 resolutions (Assembly's demands). Main demand=Responsible Government (members of councils to be selected from elected assembly) & government made up by the ppl would be responsible for its decisions. -
The Rebellions 1837-38 CONTINUED 2
92 Resolutions sent to British Gov. Russell reponds with 10 Resolutions (solutions which didn't solve any of Patriotes main demands, it gave even MORE power to councils).
This response=insult & rebellions broke out in Upper & Lower Cdn.
Upper Cdn. Rebellion lead by Mackenzie & put down quickly
Lower Cdn. Rebellion lead by Papineau & after battles in St-Charles, St-Denis (French win), St-Eustache, rebellion's put down.
Patriotes supported by Clergy, but don't have enough support outside Montreal. -
The Rebellions CONTINUED 3 & Lord Durham
Patriotes=poorly organized & equipped
Results: 12 were hanged outside Montreal's prison as a symbol, 58 exiled to Australia (giant prison).
Lord Durham was sent to the Canadas to give his opinion on what do do next.
RECOMMENDATIONS:
Britain increase immigration to assimilate French
2 Canadas should unite (Eng.=majority)
Reponsible Gov. granted to ELIMINATE VETO. These ideas were rejected by Brit. Parliament until
... -
Act of Union (4th constitution)
Creates Province of Canada consisting of Cdn East & West.
Cdn East (used to be Lower Cdn) & West (" Upper Cdn) each had 42 members to its assembly
Governor still had VETO
Cdn East & West would equally pay for Canada's debts (Cdn West owed 10x more!) Cleary this system=flawed (not responsible), changed in very short time
Conflict occured quickly, Reponsible Gov. adopted slowly.
1842: Prime minister selected members of executive council from Leg. assembly.
... -
Act of Union (4th constitution) CONTINUED
1848 (now Responsible Gov.): Governor Elgin would be 1st Not to use his VETO & allow Prime minister (leader of exectuive council) to have executive powers. STRUCTURE OF RESPONSIBLE GOV.
Ppl now elect Leg. Assembly (Parliament)
Prime minister form Cabinet (executive council) - propose laws, must be approved through Assembly
Governor & Leg. Council still appointed, but didn't intervene & use veto, even though pressured to do so by rich Eng. merchants + wanted them to override laws to stay rich. -
POLITICS IN THE 1860'S & Charlottetown Conference
Political system became reponsible, but no one could agree on who should be in charge. No party could win majority gov.
Party leaders agreed a merger was needed, meetings to discuss this:
CHARLOTTETOWN CONFERENCE
Sept. 1864 - Leaders of Canada East/West meet w/ leaders of Maritime Provinces (New-Brunswick, Nova-Scotia, Prince-Edouard-Island), left meetings agreeing to consider a merger (merge Canada East & West into 1 Canada).
... -
Quebec Conference
Same members as last time + Newfoundland. Agreed on 72 resolutions that'd make merger possible:
Federal system (1 Canadian Gov)
24 seats/colony (72 total)
Assembly elected by rep by pop (representation by population)
Build railway between colonies Conferences went well, but:
Nfld & PEI withdrew (won't benefit from railways, don't want to pay)
Dorion's Parti Rouge opposed federation (power will decrease, want to keep QC separate)
Assembly of Canadas passed confederation barely -
London Conference
Leaders of 4 colonies meet to make arrangement to release from British Empire to become a new self-governing colony. THE DOMINION OF CANADA! Capital of Ottawa created under British North American (BNA) Act (1867). Contains Ontario, QC, NB, NS
The other prov. join between 1870-1949
Federal Gov. had certain responsibilites as did the prov:
Federal: defence, banking & $, postal service, criminal law
Provincial: edu, municipal institutions, hospitals, property & civil laws
... -
Influence (power) of R.C. Church in QC
After 1837, bishops became more powerful & cures became most important person in parish.
Church still registers births, deaths & marriages
Control edu.
Orphanages, charities, religious festivals
R.C. Church attendance=HIGH
Protestants were divided (ex: Anglicans). Ministers still influential, but not as powerful as Chuch
Protestant universities (ex: McGill) -
London Conference CONTINUED
Immigration & agriculture were shared responsibilities between the Federal & provincial govs. Federal gov. could disallow any provincial law if it felt it wasn't in Canada's interest. -
Period: to
Contemporary Period
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Power Relations between Linguistic Groups & State AND between Nationalist Movements & State
WWI & WWII Conscription
Since '67: Dominance of English in business & politics and protection of English minority in QC in the constitution
Quebecers=upset that they're not getting paid equal amounts as Anglophones & don't have same job opportunities as English.
Ppl in QC would feel proud of all recent achievements, nationalists sentiments developed & movement towrds independent QC gains momentum. QC nationalists form political groups supporting sovereignty.
... -
Power Relations between Linguistic Groups & State AND between Nationalist Movements & State CONTINUED
Terrorist organizations (FLQ: Front de Liberation du Quebec) begin planting bombs targeting military establishments in Montreal area & Westmount mailboxes.
Main goal: attain independence for QC from Canada though use of violence
1967: General de Gaulle of France comes to Mtl to celebrate Canada's 100 b-day (Expo 76 world fair). From City hall he calls out "Vive le Quebec libre", which sends Quebecois into an uproar
1966: Levesque quit Liberal party to form Mouvement Souverainte Association... -
Power Relations between Linguistic Groups & State AND between Nationalist Movements & State CONTINUED 2
(MSA)... along w/ RIN & RN. They form Parti Quebecois (PQ) in 1968 (lead by Levesque).
1970: OCTOBER CRISIS. FLQ kidnapped Cross & Laporte. Prime Minister Trudeau used War Measures Act to call army & 100s of FLQ members were arrested. Laporte's body's found in trunk of his car, Cross is released. -
Power Relations between Union Movements & State CONTINUED
Anti-Labour Laws: Padlock Law (1937), right to strike, use of police against strikers
1944: Adoption of Labour Relations Act, 1964: Labour Code recognizes right to strike to all workers.
1972: Strike of united front. -
Power Relations between Union Movements & State
First strikes & partial legalization of unions, implantation of American unions ('80). Royal Comission on relations between capital & labour ('86-'89).
Union demands regarding health & safety & laws (CSST), protection of children (laws on public edu, on minimum working age of children).
Union struggle to ensure a minimum salary to workers, women, elders (unemployment law, welfare, minimum wage in 1945, old-age pensions & pay equity)
... -
Power Relations between Feminist Movements & State
Foundation of National Council of Women (suffragettes)
1961: Electing 1st woman to Leg. Assembly of QC (Casgrain)
'64: 16, which ended legal incapacity of married women
'65: Foundation of Federation des femmes du Quebec (revised Civil Code, established maternity leave, decrminilization of abortion, equality (theory) of men & women) '96: Law on pay equity adopted
Invention of the pill: won't allow women to get pregnant (birth control). More control of their bodies. -
Power Relations between Media & State
In 19th century, control of newspapers by political parties (propaganda)
In early 20th century, dissemination of political views by newspapers (Le Devoir); 20th cent., dissemination of mass info through radio & TV: influences public opinion, so politicians use media for their image & to promote their parties
For many, media is the 4th power -
Idealization of Rural Life
It was believed that rural communities were best places to promote values like family life, gratifying work & religious beliefs. Agriculture was & should still be at heart of Quebec's economy to avoid urbanization & associated problems like unemployment. -
R.C. Church & Role of State (p. 21)
Continued to control edu, hospitals, & orph. Influential in gov., unions & caisses populaires. Promote families, rural life & Christian values Gov. led by DUPLESSIS believed that state shouldn't intervene in social & economic sectors. Its role (supports) consisted of offering $ to Church & favourable conditions for investment purposes. -
Challengers of the Traditional QC Society & Government
UNION LEADERS
Accuse Duplessis of opposing social progress & of serving American interests rather than interests of QC workers. Numerous strikes! Asbestos Strike of 1949, even Church officials like Bishop Charbonneau supported strikers. INTELLECTUALS (university grads who want to start businesses) & JOURNALISTS
Intell. like Trudeau & Rene Levesque opposed Duplessis Gov. & attacked conservative (quiet) nature of QC society in newspapers, magazines & TV programs -
Duplessis & Union National Party
He (QC nationalist) founded Union National Party (push for independent QC) & was premier of QC from 1936-39 & 1944-59. Defended prov. autonomy (QC can help themselves) & had battles w/ Ottawa over federal initiatives in prov. jurisdictions (refused federal funding).
Other nationalist policies:
Adopt Fleurdelise as QC's flag in 1948
Introduce prov. income tax plan in 1954
1951, Duplessis' gov. refused federal $ for QC universities since edu was prov. jurisdiction.
Refused federal $ to QC families -
Quiet Revolution (Revolution Tranquille)
Electoral defeat of Union Nationl Party by Lesage & his Liberal Party. Best described as rapid & far-reaching process of social, economic & political reform in QC from early to late '60s.
MAIN FEATURES
Make QC Gov. the major force behind QC's social & economic development by increasing role of state in these sectors (Hydro-Quebec became gov. owned, trans-canada expanded, Montreal Metro created)
Modernize edu system & allow catch up to other prov. (Free public school 'till 16, MEQ created)
... -
Power Relations between Financial Circles & State CONTINUED
Practice of funding of political parties by businessmen causes scandals & denunciation of patronage.
From 1960, state takes control of certain economic sectors, subsidizes QC companies & recognizes employees' rights.
CONCEPTS: POWER, interest, influence, state, society & rights -
Quebec Revolution CONTINUED & Power Relations
Weaken influence of Church & end QC's political isolation QC in modernization period. Jobs moved away from rural, more intellectuals, university trained specialists (technocrats). Union membership 2x, as comissions established to promote industries like steel & mining. POWER RELATIONS BETWEEN FINANCIAL CIRCLES & STATE (reciprocal influence: dirty)
Involvement of businessmen in politics facilitates access to grants, laws & regulations in favour of companies & banks.
... -
Quebec Nationalism Continued...
OCTOBER CRISIS was put down, but not all moves toward independent QC were violent.
'61: Office de la langue francaise created to promote French language.
Language issue=BIG in QC politics & some pieces of legislation were passed
Official language act, Bill 22 (French official language) -
Bill 101 - French Language is Priority
ONLY FRENCH SIGNS ALLOWED IN PUBLIC SPACE, only children with English speaking parents educated in QC could go to English schools
English fought back w/ Bill 178 & Bill 86
Battle continues today & struggle of QC remaining in Canada continues.
Federalists - want QC to stay
Separatists - want QC to be independent -
Why Separate?
Because of their cultural differences & oppressive struggle since English overtaking many French in QC. See themselves as Quebecois not Canadiens, belonging to an independent nation. -
Have they tried (to separate)?
PQ leader, Levesque, felt so strongly about the issue that he held referendum in '80. About 60% against separation.
To unify the conutry, Trudeau met w/ provincial leaders to discuss method of patriating the constitution & assuring full independence from Britain. All prov. agreed except QC, but Constitution Act and Charter of Rights & Freedoms went ahead anyways in '82.
Later '84, w/ Prime Minister Mulroney, federal gov. tried to organize a package that would satisfy QC & Other prov.
... -
Have they tried? CONTINUED
MEECH LAKE ACCORD written w/ various reforms, but denied by Newfoundland & Manitoba. ('87-'90)
Later, CHARLOTTETOWN AGREEMENT sought to do same (including recognize aboriginal & QC rights). Voted against by the ppl ('92)
Another referendum in '95, led by Parizeau. 50.6% against & 49.4% for. The issue's still not resolved & another referendum could be held. Presently, 50% + 1 is needed to separate. -
Native Issues CONTINUED
James Bay (dam) & Northern Quebec Agreement ('75) grants more political power to the Cree & Inuit; repatriation of the Constitution ('82) formally recognizes certain aboriginal rights without ending their claims, The Peace of the Brave (2002) recognizes their rights on their territory in exchange for financial compensation for exploration of natural resources. -
Native Issues
Oka Crisis: In summer, Mohawk warriors put up road blocks on borders to their reserves in Oka (outside Montreal), when golf course wanted expansion onto native land. Canadian forces called in to handle situation.
Lasted 78 days. No armed conflict, but issues remained.
Charlottetown Accord created to deal w/ these issues
Native people submitted to Indian Act since 1876 (establishment of native reserves). 1960s, staked claims in court
... -
Power Relations between Environmentalist Groups & State
Since '70, pressure from environ. groups (measures & laws to protect environment) & their impact on population via media influences public policy. 1970: Creation of Ministry of Environment Quebec.
Ratification of Kyoto Protocol in Canada
Environmental movements present in QC: Greenpeace, Green Party, l'Action Boreale, etc. -
Power Relations between Movements for Social Justice & State
Early 20th century, associated w/ communism, union movements & feminism.
'30: The Great Depression brings about the creation of charity groups & aid organizations.
Pressure they exert on the gov. contributes to adoption of laws & measures intended to protect the average citizen (Commission des normes du travail, Regie du Logement, etc.).
