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Developed the theory of cognitive development, influencing literacy instruction. Emphasized the importance of active learning and stages of development in reading skills. Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. W. W. Norton. -
Introduced the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and highlighted the role of social interaction in literacy learning. The zone of proximal development (ZPD) is the gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with help. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press. -
Provided federal funding for schools to support low-income students, which aimed to improve literacy education for disadvantaged children. U.S. Department of Education. (1965). Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965. https://www.ed.gov/esea -
Phonics emphasizes letter-sound relationships, while whole language focuses on meaning and context. Pressley, M. (2006). Reading instruction that works: The case for balanced teaching. Guilford Press. -
Technology has transformed literacy education, integrating digital tools, multimedia texts, and interactive learning. Leu, D. J., Kinzer, C. K., Coiro, J., Cammack, D. (2004). Toward a theory of new literacies emerging from the Internet and other information and communication technologies. Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading, 5(1), 1570–1613. -
Emphasized standardized testing and accountability in literacy education. Aimed to significantly improve the academic performance of all students by holding schools accountable for their student's progress on standardized tests, requiring states to develop challenging academic standards. U.S. Department of Education. (2002). No Child Left Behind: A desktop reference. https://www2.ed.gov/nclb/landing.jhtml