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Rural schooling in Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado
Rural nature of these states allowed Spanish to flourish as primary language for instruction for longer than Texas and California,. -
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Catholic schools proliferate for Tejanos and Californios
Ursuline Sisters,Sisters of the Incarnate Word, etc. establish both expensive parochial schools for moneyed Latino's and free common schools. -
Texas "Act to Establish a System of Common Schools"
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Santa Barbara public schools clash over bilingual instruction
Anglo-only school comissioners call for English only public schools, but compromise was reached with establishment of separate schools. However, the expense was prohibitive and they were combined into one bilingual school, which parents protested (according to Anti-Mexican Santa Barbara Gazette) by [preferring] to keep them at home, unwilling that they should learn a confused jargon and gibberish". Mexican parents respond by enrolling their children in private Catholic schools. -
California law prohibits religious schools from receiving taxpayer dollars.
By 1853, anti-Catholic sentiments were gaining ground in California. Section 10 of California's 1851 school law permitted religious schools to receive "compensation from the Public School fund in proportion to the number of its pupils, in the same
manner as provided for district schools by this act.", but by 1855 it had been revised to include the stipulation that "no
sectarian books should be used, and no sectarian doctrines should be taught in public school under penalty of forfeiting funds." -
Chapter 98, Section approved by 1858 Texas state legislature
"No school shall be entitled to the [monetary] benefits of this act unless the English language is principally taught therein." -
Homestead Act
The Homestead Act is passed in Congress, allowing squatters in the West to settle and claim vacant lands—many of which were owned by Mexicans. -
Mexican-origin legislator Estevan Ochoa plays key role in power structure of Arizona school laws.
Named member of Tucson school board and later state legislator, recognized by governor as "having been of invaluable service in stimulating his people to sustain the public school system." -
First Annual Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction in State of Texas
"[Given]the large proportion of citizens of German and Spanish birth and descent in our State " teachers would be permitted to teach the German, French, and Spanish' languages, "provided the time so occupied shouldn't exceed two hours each day" -
New Mexico & the Hispano legislative strength
For example, in 1875, 27/34 county school
commissioners were Hispanos. By 1878, 33/ 39 elected school commissioners were Hispanos. The office of superintendent of public instruction, created in the 1891 School Law, was held continuously by Hispanos from 1891 to 1905. Of all the southwestern states, New Mexico appeared to most fully embrace Spanish/English bilingualism in its public schools. In 1875, for example, two-thirds (86 of 131) of the public schools were conducted exclusively in Spanish. -
"Aoy" Mexican Prepatory School established in El Paso
School officials' reluctance to teach non-English-speaking children led Tejano parents to establish a private school and hire Olivas V. Aoy, "an elderly Spaniard," to prepare Spanish-speaking children for the public schools.T In 1888 the El Paso school board incorporated the school into the city system. By 1899, the "Aoy" School had twice been enlarged, enrolled 300 students, and boasted the highest attendance of any elementary school (white or Mexican) in the city. -
Manuel Garcia first Mexican American to graduate from UT
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USS Maine explodes in Havana Harbor
On February 15, in Havana Harbor, Cuba, an explosion destroys a U.S. battleship—killing 266 men aboard. The United States subsequently declares war on Spain, and at the end of 13 weeks, is ceded Puerto Rico & Guatanomo Bay (along with Phillipines & Guam). -
Puerto Rico's Code of School Laws
PR's second military governor Guy v. Henry established a Code of School Laws in 1899 urging districts to organize public schools. In his circular dated January 19, 1899 he required that teacher's 'shall be expected to learn English," and in new Appointments, Englush speaking teachers "shall be preferred". -
General George W. Davis appoints Puertorriqueño-led BOE
Under General Davis the Bureau of Education continued, but he also
appointed a Board of Education, which allowed for more Puerto Rican participation. The board originally consisted of five members, three of whom were Puerto Rican natives. By December 1899 the board was increased to nine members, seven of whom were from Puerto Rico. General Davis granted broad power to the board for the "general and superintending capacity over the educational interests of Puerto Rico." -
Harvard Cuba program
Americanization in Cuba followed a different path than Puerto Rico.
Harvard alumni-in cooperation with the U.S. government, philanthropists, and the university-conducted summer sessions for Cuban teachers in 1900 and 1901. More than 1,300 teachers arrived in Cambridge in 1900 and spent several weeks learning English, studying pedagogical methods, and taking excursions to nearby sites. -
University of Puerto Rico established
In 1903 the University of Puerto Rico was created with a Normal (teacher training) Department. Unlike the Ivy league experiences afforded the "Cuban contingent", Puerto Rican teacher training was largely completed at UPR or at African American industrial education colleges such as Hampton and Tuskegee. -
Anglo superintendent of Apache county schools recommends Spanish language teachers
In all districts where the Spanish Ianguage prevails I respectfully suggest that the teachers employed have a practical knowledge of that language, otherwise, they will be unable to do either themselves or the pupils justice..." -
Founding of LULAC
In Texas, Mexican Americans began organizing to defend themselves against prejudice. The Order of the Sons of America; The Knights of America in San Antonio; and The League of Latin American Citizens combined. LULAC united all Mexican American organizations under one title, one set of objectives, and one constitution.
