Human evolution and the world

By franticgaming225
  • Period: 270,000 BCE to 125,000 BCE

    Homo Sapiens cranuims approach size of modern humans

    The very robust Homo heidelbergensis cranium was found in Kabwe, Zambia, in 1921, once held a brain approaching the size of modern humans
  • Period: 270,000 BCE to 236,000 BCE

    First fossils of Homo naledi found

    The Cradle of Humankind site contains the Rising Star Cave system where fossils of Homo naledi were first discovered in 2013
  • Period: 270,000 BCE to 224,000 BCE

    Mixed cranuim of both Homo heidelbergensis and Homo Sapiens discovered

    A partial cranium found at Florisbad, South Africa, appears to be that of a transitional individual with features common in both Homo heidelbergensis and Homo Sapiens
  • Period: 270,000 BCE to 70,000 BCE

    Homo Sapiens in Africa

    Before Homo Sapiens first left Africa, they flourished as a species and began to exhibit what we might recognize as "Modern" behavior. Excavations at the Blombos Caves, on the southern tip of Africa, have produced some of the earliest evidence of complex thought and innovation, including jewelry, engraved stones, refined bone tools, projectile weapons, and painting materials.
  • 200,000 BCE

    Cave residences by Early Humans

    Excavations at a cave on the Libyan Coast have produced evidence of continual occupation by modern humans for many thousands of years
  • Period: 194,000 BCE to 88,000 BCE

    Early Asian Expanisons

    The earliest evidence of modern humans living outside Africa is a partial jaw and teeth from Misliya Cave in Israel, dated to 194,000 - 177,000 years ago. Fossils from Skhul and Qafzeh, also in Israel, dated to around 120,000 years ago possibly represent a subsequent wave of expansion. The discovery of an 88,000-year-old finger bone in Al Wusta, Saudi Arabia, has extended the range of early migrations to the Arabian Peninsula.
  • 185,000 BCE

    Separation between Apes and Humans

    Separation Between Apes and Humans first began 6.5 Million Years Ago (MYA). Homo Sapiens migrate from Africa - Asia 1.5 Million years after the first group left the African Continent
  • 165,000 BCE

    Earliest use of Pigment - Painting/Tools

    The earliest evidence of pigment use at Pinnacle Point, South Africa, for painting or as part of a tool
  • Period: 150,000 BCE to 50,000 BCE

    Mysterious Denisovans

    DNA analysis of a finger bone and 2 teeth from Denisova Cave in Siberia had identified a previously unknown and distinct population, the Denisovans. Although their remains have only been found at one site, their genes indicate that they were widespread. Contemporaries of the Neanderthals, they also interbred with this species, as well as with Homo Sapiens
  • Period: 135,000 BCE to 100,000 BCE

    Earliest use of Jewellery and Mining

    Seashells are perforated and used as ornamental beads in the Middle East and North Africa are the first Jewellery - and the earliest evidence of drilling.
  • Period: 120,000 BCE to 80,000 BCE

    Oldest remains found in East Asia

    Human remains at Tianyuan Cave are the oldest in East Asia.
  • Period: 120,000 BCE to 45,000 BCE

    Central to East Asia Migration

    Populations that spread to central and eastern Asia probably came from those that had originally colonized coastal southern Asia. The cold, bleak environments they encountered to the north would have demanded great adaptability. Those that reached the far northeast would give to the populations that went on to colonize the Americas
  • 92,000 BCE

    Earliest Ritual Burial Site

    Evidence of the earliest known ritual burial of the dead at Qafzeh Cave, Israel
  • Period: 80,000 BCE to 40,000 BCE

    Eastern Coastal Route

    The genetic trail of modern humans leaving Africa leads through the Middle East, then along the coast of South Asia. People living off rich coastal resources may have made swift progress. Fossil evidence proves that they reached Borneo 40,000 years ago, while Australian sites have been dated to 65,000 years ago.
  • 65,000 BCE

    Australia and Papua New Guinea First Colonization

    Australia and Papua New Guinea - then connected by land - are colonized by boat
  • 65,000 BCE

    Colonization of Australia

    The earliest known archaeological sites in Australia are 65,000 years old - a date that conforms with genetic evidence for the origins of indigenous Australians. Fossils of humans and their animal prey, as well as artifacts from the time, indicate that populations were centered around coastlines and the Murray-Darling River basins.
  • 60,000 BCE

    Earliest known processing technology began

    Microliths in Africa - Small stone tools, including blades - first used for cutting and scraping, the earliest known processing technology
  • Period: 50,000 BCE to 25,000 BCE

    Europe Colonized

    Despite its relative proximity to Africa, modern humans did not start to colonize Europe until around 50,000 years ago. Early sites suggest that they spread along coastlines and rivers, starting in the eastern Mediterranean. Although little fossil evidence exists, the rich archaeological material includes the first figurative carvings and musical instruments.
  • Period: 50,000 BCE to 28,000 BCE

    Interaction with Neanderthals

    Neanderthals had been living in Europe for hundreds of thousands of years before modern humans arrived. Although the timing and locations are unknown, ancient genetics suggest thousands of interbreeding events. Some fossils attributed to modern humans show features associated with Neanderthals, leading some scientists to speculate that these individuals may be hybrids.
  • 45,000 BCE

    Coexisting along with Wildlife

    Tools, along with mammoth and rhinoceros bones, show humans living above the Arctic Circle during the Ice Age.
  • 44,000 BCE

    Human Migration from Africa - Europe

    Homo Sapiens migrate from Asia into Europe, mixing with European Neanderthals and eventually replacing them
  • Period: 42,000 BCE to 37,000 BCE

    Mixing between 2 species

    DNA extracted from remains of Homo Sapiens from Pestera cu Oase, Romania, is estimated to be 5 - 11 percent Neanderthal, meaning that it had a Neanderthal relation within 4 - 6 generations.
  • 40,000 BCE

    Oldest dated painting ever

    The oldest securely dated painting includes a handprint in an Indonesian cave
  • 40,000 BCE

    Stone axes were used

    Around 70 stone axes were found buried in dated volcanic sediment layers in Huon Peninsula, Papua New Guinea.
  • 40,000 BCE

    Asian Origins

    Probably before 40,000 YA, hunter-gatherers were already living in Asian Arctic regions. These hardy people, who hunted mammoth at the Yana RHS Site in Siberia (27,000 YA), were used to harsh conditions and well prepared to take advantage of the lower sea levels that exposed the Beringia landmass joining Asia and America before 24,000 YA. They were the ancestors of the first people who crossed to America.
  • Period: 38,700 BCE to 36,200 BCE

    Oldest modern human remains found

    A male from Kostenki is one of the oldest modern humans found in Europe
  • Period: 38,000 BCE to 30,000 BCE

    Earliest record of Modern Humans in South Asia

    Balangoda Man in Sri Lanka represents the earliest reliably dated record of anatomically modern humans in South Asia.
  • 35,000 BCE

    Counting tally found to be used on Bones

    Border Cave yielded the Lebombo Bone to archaeologists - this bears marks suggesting a counting tally, similar to those used in recent times by the San people of the Kalahari.
  • 30,000 BCE

    Needles are first used

    Needles used for sewing in Europe and Russia
  • 28,000 BCE

    Complex Cultures living on the Steppes

    Spectacular double child burial in Eastern Europe shows complex Hunter-Gatherer cultures living on the Steppes
  • Period: 26,000 BCE to 13,000 BCE

    Founder Americans

    Genetic evidence indicates that most early North Americans arose from one of two branches of a population originating in East Asia. These common ancestors of Ancient Beringians and today's Native Americans' ancestors were blocked by ice sheets before moving past Alaska. The first Americans went further south and into Canada when receding ice sheets exposed coastal and interior routes.
  • 25,000 BCE

    Settlements on the shelf between Russia and Alaska

    Siberian Homo Sapiens settles on the continental shelf between Ice Age Russia and Alaska, before dispersing through the Americas
  • 25,000 BCE

    The emergence of art

    The Venus of Brassempouy (France) dating to about 25,000 years ago, features one of the earliest known representations of the human face.
  • 24,000 BCE

    Close Ancestry Ties with the man from Kostenki

    According to DNA analysis, Mal'ta Boy shares a close ancestry with the male found in Kostenki, Europe
  • 24,000 BCE

    Yana Culture from Siberia found in Alaska

    Mammoth Bone and flakes indicate possible eastern reach of Yana culture from Siberia.
  • Period: 20,000 BCE to 19,000 BCE

    Earliest indication of Southward movements in America

    Butchering marks on mammoth bones are possible evidence for one of the earliest southward movements of humans from the ice-locked north.
  • Period: 18,500 BCE to 14,500 BCE

    Oldest human Habitation in South America

    Oldest human habitation in South America, possibly a coastal culture; unusually good preservation including hearths, hide, and plants.
  • 16,000 BCE

    First Quarrying Site in North America

    650,000 artifacts, mainly blades and flakes, could indicate a permanent quarrying site.
  • Period: 16,000 BCE to 14,000 BCE

    Oldest Farm site discovered

    One of the oldest sites includes non-Clovis tools and a range of plants gathered for food, including seeds, fruits, and corn.
  • 15,000 BCE

    First use of Ladders

    First use of Ladders in Lascaux Caves, France
  • 15,000 BCE

    Oldest Clovis Artefacts Discovered

    Oldest Clovis Artefacts, possibly used for working wood and bone.
  • Period: 15,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE

    North American Cultures

    Multiple population dispersals pushed on through North America, but archaeological evidence is dominated by stone artifacts left by peoples of the so-called Clovis culture, around 13,000 YA. Named after an archaeological site in New Mexico, the Clovis people were mobile Hunter-Gatherers, who used tools to kill and butcher large animals, such as mammoths.
  • 14,600 BCE

    Mastodon Butchering

    Evidence of butchering of Mastodons
  • 14,000 BCE

    Microbades used in North America

    Microblades used in North America similar to those in Siberia.
  • 14,000 BCE

    Found Preserved Human Faeces

    Human coprolites (Preserved Faeces) in Paisely cave, Oregan
  • Period: 14,000 BCE to 12,000 BCE

    Penetrating Further South

    At least one bloodline diverged from the rest of the North Americans and migrated southwards. These people took their hunting technology with them as they reached out into the more tropical regions of Central America, then down towards the Equator and South America
  • Period: 14,000 BCE to 13,600 BCE

    Wooden tools dated when America was first colonized

    The dates of wooden tools match the local First Nation's (Heiltsuk Nation's) oral history of its colonization.
  • Period: 14,000 BCE to 10,000 BCE

    Colonizing South America

    Most of South America's earliest colonists stuck to the Pacific coast, where they spread in the Andean region before continuing down towards Patagonia. It is likely that many crossed the Andes, with some people living at altitudes of over 4000m (13,120ft), to go eastwards deep into the Amazon basin or across Patagonia.
  • 13,800 BCE

    Weaponary found in bone

    Pre-Clovis stone tool embedded in bone.
  • 13,100 BCE

    First human - Livestock coexistance

    Human habitation with living floor, hearth, and horses.
  • 13,000 BCE

    Blades and Weaporary used in Siberia

    Blades and Flake tools, but without burins (chisel-like edges), at Ushki complex.
  • 13,000 BCE

    Same tools and weaponary from Siberia used in NA

    Tools similar to those used in Ushki complex found in North America
  • 13,000 BCE

    Oldest Anthropological Deposit in North America Discovered

    Clovis, for many years, was thought to be the oldest anthropological deposit in North America.
  • 13,000 BCE

    Early use of Possible Watercraft

    Human remains on offshore islands indicate possible use of watercraft.
  • 13,000 BCE

    Old Spearheads found in North South America

    Evidence of Stone Spearheads and butchered Mastodons was found in Taima Taima, Northern Venezuela.
  • 13,000 BCE

    Conversion from Hunters to Farmers

    Evidence of transition from Hunter-Gatherer to early Farming settlements.
  • 12,600 BCE

    First Full American DNA sample found

    Clovis-type infant (Anzick-1) is first ancient Native American DNA sample providing a full genetic sequence
  • Period: 12,500 BCE to 9000 BCE

    Transition from Nomads to Settlements

    The Natufian people, descended from nomads of the Levant and Sinai, made the earliest settlements in southwest Asia, from about 12,500 BCE. At first, these were probably nothing more than seasonal hunting camps, although evidence for these was scant because nomads had few material possessions. Their descendants stockpiled food that demanded permanent storage.
  • Period: 12,000 BCE to 4000 BCE

    Earliest Evidence of Agriculture: Mesopotamia

    It is no coincidence that some of the earliest crops were grown on the nutrient-rich floodplain between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers of modern-day Iraq. Here in ancient Mesopotamia (meaning "between rivers"), wheat was domesticated around 11,000 BCE. This region was part of a so-called "Fertile Crescent" that stretched westwards as far as the Levant and became key to the global agricultural revolution.
  • 11,500 BCE

    Double Child Burial found in Beringia (Alaska)

    Double child burial, one of which, Xach'itee'aanenh T'eede Gaay (Sunrise Girl Child), provided DNA evidence of Ancient Beringian people
  • 11,500 BCE

    Tell Abu Hureyra

    Founded by people of Natufian culture. Settlement is reoccupied after a period of abandonment and thrives as a village that domesticates cereals and sheep.
  • 11,000 BCE

    Hunting site discovered

    Spearhead, human fossil, and remains of hunted animals discovered in Piedra Museo, Argentina
  • 11,000 BCE

    Earliest known Plant domestication begins in Mesopotamia

    Earliest evidence of plant domestication in the form of emmer and einkorn wheats
  • 11,000 BCE

    Junglefowl are domesticated in India

    Wild Junglefowl, the ancestor of the modern-day chicken, is domesticated in India
  • Period: 11,000 BCE to 9000 BCE

    Farming begins in Southwest Asia

    Wheat and barley are grown in southwest Asia to produce non-shattering seed heads that are easier to harvest - the first domesticated cereals.
  • Period: 11,000 BCE to 3000 BCE

    Domestication of Crops in Asia: China

    Rice has become the staple crop in river valleys in China. Farmers chose the best glutinous rice grains to grow more plants, so rice grains got bigger. This human-driven change had already transformed wild wheat in Mesopotamia, where harvesting by sickles had, by chance, favored non-shattering seed heads. However, the selection of rice grains in Asia probably happened through more conscious effort.
  • Period: 11,000 BCE to 6000 BCE

    First Agrarian Settlement

    Farmers emerged from early settlers who exploited wild cereals, such as rye, which was cultivated as early as 11,050 BCE. At first, settlers rallied together to protect wild food plants from grazing animals, but, over time, plants were moved or seeds sown closer to home. Houses became more permanent, as mud brick replaced perishable brushwood as building material.
  • 10,500 BCE

    Early bird hunting site discovered

    Stone Scrappers, choppers, and bolas, possibly used to hunt birds
  • 10,500 BCE

    Modern cattle domestication began in Mesopotomia

    Modern Cattle domesticated from a small founding herd containing possibly as few as 80 animals
  • Period: 10,300 BCE to 9550 BCE

    Ain Ghazal

    Settlement consisting of farms supporting thousands of people produces lime-plaster statues representing human form.
  • 10,200 BCE

    First ever Pig domestication begins in Mesopotamia

    Earliest evidence of pig domestication
  • 10,200 BCE

    Mereybat

    Small village of Natufian culture hunter-gatherers
  • 10,000 BCE

    Domesticated animals and Livestock used

    In southwest Asia, local animals - including pigs, sheep, goats, and cattle - are domesticated and will become globally important livestock.
  • 10,000 BCE

    Better sources of protein founded in Vegetables

    Lentils, peas, and chickpeas in the Middle East provide an additional source of protein - Improving the dietary balance along the Fertile Cresent.
  • 10,000 BCE

    Earliest known dry crop farming in China

    Archaeological evidence of Millet, the earliest known dry farming crop in Asia
  • 10,000 BCE

    First ever sheep and goat domestication

    Earliest evidence of sheep and goat domestication
  • 10,000 BCE

    Jericho

    Camping ground for Natufian hunter-gatherers grows into one of the world's oldest cities
  • Period: 10,000 BCE to 5000 BCE

    Maize becomes the staple cereal in the Americas

    Maize domesticated in Central America has become the staple cereal in the Americas, while squash plants are selectively bred to reduce the bitterness of their taste.
  • Period: 10,000 BCE to 4000 BCE

    Agriculture in the wet tropics: New Guinea

    Covered with rainforest, the tropical island of New Guinea offered a completely different mix of food plants. Instead of cereals, people grew fruit and root crops - notably banana and taro, the latter of which has both edible roots and leaves and is still a local food staple. But farming here was only part of the local economy; the region remains today the only primary center of agriculture that has not contributed domesticated species to the rest of the world.
  • Period: 10,000 BCE to 2000 BCE

    Different Kinds of Crops and Livestock: America

    Across the Old World, similar kinds of crops and livestock were being used in separate centers of agriculture. However, the early colonizers of the Americas found entirely new plants, such as squashes and maize. The variety of these plants increased as people from different regions exchanged their produce. The only large animals suitable for domestication in the Americas, llamas and alpacas, were both found in the Andes.
  • Period: 9130 BCE to 7370 BCE

    Gobeki Tepe

    The oldest known temple, was built by people who probably guarded plant resources but had not started farming.
  • 9000 BCE

    Maize takes off

    Rapid domestication of maize in Mesoamerica
  • 9000 BCE

    Khirokitia

    A town with two-storey, round, stone houses
  • Period: 9000 BCE to 2000 BCE

    Livestock Before Crops: Africa

    In some parts of the world, animals were domesticated before crops. In Africa, cattle were being used as early as 9000 BCE, but local cereals, such as millet and sorghum, were not domesticated until thousands of years after that. Agriculture began in the Sahara; due to increased rainfall after the Ice Age, the area was then covered by grasslands, lakes, and marshes. As the region dried, agriculture spread southwards.
  • 8000 BCE

    domesticated Asian rice begins in China

    Origin of all domesticated Asian rice
  • 8000 BCE

    Byblos

    One of the oldest continuously inhabited towns in the world
  • 7500 BCE

    Ali Kosh

    Settlement with domestication of animals, such as goats
  • Period: 7400 BCE to 5200 BCE

    Catal Hoyuk

    Early Proto-urban settlement developed new burial traditions beneath houses
  • Period: 7200 BCE to 6500 BCE

    Beidha

    People cultivate cereals, and herd goats while hunting animals and gathering nuts.
  • Period: 7090 BCE to 4950 BCE

    Jarmo

    Settlement engages in organized trade of obsidian and shells with distant places
  • 7000 BCE

    Cattle is domesticated in Africa for the first time

    Cattle are domesticated in Northern Africa, pre-dating in the emergence of most crops on the African Continent.
  • 7000 BCE

    Rice plants grown to produce more nutrition

    Rice plants grown in the fertile Yangtze River valley in China are bred to provide larger, more nutritious grains.
  • 7000 BCE

    Food Economy for Europe starts in Greece

    Arrival of agriculture in Europe, with food-producing economy adopted in Greece
  • 7000 BCE

    Banana and Taro cultivation begins in New Guinea

    Archaeological evidence of Banana and Taro cultivation
  • 7000 BCE

    Earliest cultivation of rice starts in Asia

    Possible earliest cultivation of rice in southern Asia
  • Period: 7000 BCE to 4000 BCE

    Spread of Material Culture

    More food supported bigger settlements, as villages proliferated over a wider region, from Anatolia in the west to the Zagros Mountains in the east. Catal Hoyuk, a richer archaeological site, might have supported up to 10,000 people. Although it lacked social hierarchy, it had a thriving industry in pottery and obsidian tools and may have traded for seashells and flints from Syria.
  • Period: 6500 BCE to 2600 BCE

    Tell Brak

    Becomes gateway to Tigris Valley and develops into one of the first cities
  • Period: 6400 BCE to 6200 BCE

    Tepe Guran

    Small village based on dry farming, herding, and hunting
  • Period: 6100 BCE to 5400 BCE

    Tell Halaf

    A town that gives its name to the Halaf Culture, known for pottery with geometric or animal designs
  • 6000 BCE

    Incas domesticate llamas

    Earliest domestication of llamas by the Incas began in 6000 BCE
  • 6000 BCE

    Baghouz

    Town occupied by Samarra culture, known for finely-made pottery
  • 6000 BCE

    Tell Arpachiyan

    Appears as specialized artisan village, producing fine pottery
  • 6000 BCE

    Choga Mami

    First known use of Canal Irrigation
  • 6000 BCE

    Tepe Sabz

    Village with agriculture
  • 6000 BCE

    Tell Hasuna

    Trade hub, which also improves its own agriculture through irrigation
  • 6000 BCE

    Ugarit

    Small fortified town with a surrounding wall
  • 6000 BCE

    Hacilar

    After a period of abandonment, the village is reoccupied by a culture with advanced pottery.
  • Period: 6000 BCE to 1500 BCE

    Tepe Giyan

    Settlement produces monochromatic pottery
  • Period: 6000 BCE to 3000 BCE

    Growth of Urban Life

    The Ubaid people were the first to colonize southwest Mesopotamia as the Stone Age gave way to the Copper Age. They used copper to make tools, were led by hereditary chieftains, and may even have had a primitive democracy. Ubaid settlements merged to form bigger communities - Notably Uruk, which would become one of the first true cities and a hub of major trade networks.
  • 5500 BCE

    Horses are used in Central Asia

    Horses are domesticated in Central Asia.
  • 5500 BCE

    Earliest use of horse domestication

    Earliest evidence of horse domestication, including use of harnesses
  • 5500 BCE

    Eridu City - Worlds first city

    It developed into one of the biggest settlements of the Ubaid culture; possibly the world's first city.
  • Period: 5500 BCE to 4000 BCE

    Tell Zeidan

    Becomes the Western outpost of Ubaid culture
  • Period: 5200 BCE to 3500 BCE

    Tell el 'Ubaid

    A settlement that gives its name to the Ubaid culture develops the use of copper-based technology
  • 5000 BCE

    New Waves of Colonisers between Asia and the Pacific

    A new wave of colonists - The Austronesians - migrates from Asia across Papua New Guinea and reaches islands of the Pacific Ocean
  • 5000 BCE

    Origins of Arctic Indigenous Peoples

    Within the last 5,000 years, the ancestors of today's Inuit, Inupiat, and Yupik peoples entered America. Like the earlier colonists, they probably arrived from Northeastern Asia but stayed in the north. The complex skills that allowed them to live and hunt in the Arctic are still practiced today.
  • 5000 BCE

    Potato Plants are Grown for the first time.

    Potato Plants are grown in Peru and northern Argentina - the ancestors of potatoes used as a staple today.
  • 5000 BCE

    Llamas and Alpacca become domesticated in South America

    Llamas, alpacas, and guinea pigs are domesticated in South America; llamas are used for meat, wool, and as beasts of burden.
  • 5000 BCE

    Use of Squash in North America

    Evidence of Squash Domestication located just outside the Mississippi Valley
  • 5000 BCE

    Cattle domestication in Africa

    The earliest known cattle domestication in Africa
  • 5000 BCE

    Origin of the Oil Palm: Guinea coast of West Africa

    Likely origin of the domesticated Oil Palm
  • 5000 BCE

    Nippur

    An important religious centre
  • 5000 BCE

    Tell es Swwan

    Settlement that uses stone and flint tools and irrigation from the Tigris
  • Period: 5000 BCE to 1500 BCE

    Tepe Gawra

    The town includes one of the earliest known temples featuring pilasters and recesses
  • 4900 BCE

    Canhasan

    Sophisticated use of copper, including mace-heads and jewellery.
  • 4500 BCE

    Earliest known cultivated crop in Africa: Millet

    Evidence of Pearl Millet domestication; the earliest known cultivated crop in Africa
  • 4000 BCE

    Pearl Millet becomes staple cereal of Africa

    Pearl Millet is grown in the Sahel regions and - along with sorghum - becomes one of the staple cereals of Africa.
  • 4000 BCE

    Chickens are used for food in Asia

    Chickens are used for food and for cock-fighting in southern Asia, although genetic evidence suggests a much earlier origin as a domesticated bird, possibly before 10000 BCE.
  • Period: 4000 BCE to 3050 BCE

    Pre-Dynastic Egypt

    From 4000 BCE, Egyptian cities such as Heliopolis, Memphis, and Abydos grew into key trading centers, importing metals and building stones from Nubia. They also traded with Mesopotamian cities, acquiring valuable materials such as lapis lazuli, which has its origin in the Indus Valley. By 3500 BCE, Nekhen (later names Hierakonpolis) was already a large city with Egypt's oldest known temples, housing royal tombs.
  • Period: 4000 BCE to 2500 BCE

    Trade in Mesopotamia

    By 4000 BCE, many city-states had emerged in Mesopotamia. Cities such as Kish, Uruk, and Ur traded local goods to the Mediterranean and also formed trade links with the Indus region - a source of luxury goods such as carnelian beads and lapis lazuli. Religion played a key societal role. Temples redistributed surplus food and craft products - offered in the name of gods - as rations or traded them for raw materials.
  • Period: 4000 BCE to 1400 BCE

    Origins and Early Migrations

    DNA evidence indicates that the Polynesians originated somewhere in Southeast Asia, probably in Taiwan. Their migration southwards began around 4000 BCE. It remains uncertain whether they moved slowly, spending long periods in areas such as New Guinea, absorbing the indigenous culture, or whether they migrated rapidly, possibly reaching Tonga as early as around 1400 BCE.
  • 3500 BCE

    New Invention: The Wheel

    The Wheel is Invented
  • Period: 3500 BCE to 3000 BCE

    Use of Sorghum Domestication in Africa

    Archaeological Evidence of Sorghum Domestication
  • Period: 3500 BCE to 3000 BCE

    City Staue Development

    City statues such as Uruk and Ur develop
  • 3400 BCE

    Earliest known writing are Pictographs

    Pictographs in summer (southern Mesopotamia) represent the earliest known writing.
  • Period: 3400 BCE to 100

    Pictographs to Cuneiform

    Writing was first devised in Sumer. Sumerian scribes first used pictographs (picture-like symbols) but simplified these into wedge-shaped marks. These marks give the technique its name, which comes from the Latin cuneus - a wedge. From Sumerian cities such as Uruk, cuneiform spread across Mesopotamia, and peoples from Hittites in Turkey to the Persians in Iran used to write their languages.
  • Period: 3200 BCE to 400

    Egyptian Hieroglyphs

    The Egyptians developed their hieroglyphs towards the end of the 4th millennium BCE. Hieroglyphs are pictorial symbols representing ideas, syllables, or sounds. People used them mainly for carved temple inscriptions. Hieroglyphs fell out of use after the temples to the Egyptian gods closed in the 4th century CE, but this was not before the idea of hieroglyphic writing seems to have passed to Crete and Anatolia.
  • 3100 BCE

    First ever irrigation system begins in Egypt

    The first major irrigation project under Egypt's First Dynasty diverts floodwater from the Nile
  • 3100 BCE

    First use of Hieroglyphics

    King Narmer unites Upper and Lower Egypt; The Hieroglyphic script develops
  • 3100 BCE

    First Cuneiform script is used

    The earliest form of Cuneiform script is used
  • 3100 BCE

    King Narmer Establishes Hierakonpolis as Capital

    Hierakonpolis is the most likely capital after Lower and Upper Egypt were unified under King Narmer.
  • 3000 BCE

    Camels become domesticated in Africa

    Dromedary camels are domesticated in Africa and Arabia - and are used for transport or for their meat and milk.
  • 3000 BCE

    Urbanization begins

    First signs of Urbanization Appears
  • 3000 BCE

    Lothal Bead-Makers Pioneered Advanced Carnelian Techniques

    Lothal bead-makers develop advanced methods to work with Carnelian
  • 3000 BCE

    Iranian Plateau Links Mesopotamia and Indus Valley via Trade Routes

    Trade routes are established across the Iranian Plateau linking Mesopotamia with the Indus Valley
  • 3000 BCE

    Eshnunna becomes a A Key Trading Hub in Ancient Mesopotamia

    Eshnunna holds a strategic position, controlling trade between Mesopotamia and the northeastern region
  • 2900 BCE

    Uruk

    City becomes the largest in the world at the time
  • 2700 BCE

    Uruk: The World’s First Major City with 50,000 Inhabitants

    Uruk's population reaches about 50,000
  • Period: 2700 BCE to 2180 BCE

    Old Kingdom

    By 2700 BCE, a succession of rulers had centralized their power in Egypt and governed from the capital, Memphis. The grand pyramids built during this era were symbolic of their power. The valley prospered as merchants travelled into the Western Desert and along the Red Sea coast to ply their trade. However, in 2180 BCE, a period of low flood and the ensuring famine resulted in Egypt splitting into two realms - Upper and Lower Egypt.
  • 2600 BCE

    New cities develop in Mesopotamia

    The cities of Hohenjo Daro and Harappa are founded
  • 2600 BCE

    Construction of Mohenjo-Daro begins

    The construction of the city of Mohenjo-Dafo reflects sophisticated civil engineering and urban planning.
  • Period: 2600 BCE to 1500 BCE

    Cities of the Indus

    Ruins of cities such as Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro show planned street layouts and sophisticated water supply and draining systems. These cities produced fine metalwork and developed new techniques in handicraft. From around 2500 BCE, they traded widely, despatching their goods with seals carved with inscriptions. These branding objects have been found throughout Mesopotamia, revealing how widely the Indus people traded.
  • Period: 2600 BCE to 1800 BCE

    The Rise and Fall of the Indus Script

    The origin and subsequent disappearance of the Indus Valley script are both mysterious, and its intricate symbols are not yet understood.
  • Period: 2580 BCE to 2560 BCE

    The Great Pyramid is built

    Egypt's Great Pyramid was built in Giza
  • 2550 BCE

    The Expansion of Pharaonic Power to Oasis Settlements

    Pharaonic power made its first contact with oasis settlements such as Bahariya.
  • 2500 BCE

    First use of the Indus Script

    Earliest use of the Indus Script is seen
  • 2350 BCE

    The worlds first empire rises

    King Sargon of Akkad united Sumerian cities to create the world's first empire.
  • Period: 2350 BCE to 1800 BCE

    Carnelian Trade

    A precious stone known as carnelian was valued second to lapis lazuli both in Mesopotamia and in Harappan society. Carnelian was sourced in and around the Indus Valey and was mostly crafted into beads and amulets. Fram around 2350 BCE, Indus Valley merchants who traded in carnelian jewellery established links with Mesopotamian cities.
  • Period: 2300 BCE to 2200 BCE

    Akkadian Empire

    As the Mesopotamian cities continued to flourish, powerful leaders south control of the region. The first was Sargon (c.2296 - 2240 BCE). As a young man, Sargon served the King of Kish, but later rebelled and overthrew the Sumerian rules. He renamed the city-state Akkad and built it into a military power, before conquering the cities of southern Mesopotamia and lands to the northwest as far as Byblos.
  • 2160 BCE

    Hut-nen-nesut: The Ancient Egyptian Capital Known as Heracleopolis

    Hat-nen-nesu, the capital of Lower Egypt until 2025 BCE, is today usually known by its Greek name Heracleopolis.
  • 2100 BCE

    The Construction of Large Forts in Nubia by Egypt

    Large forts are built to assert power over Nubia after the region is conquered.
  • Period: 2070 BCE to 1600 BCE

    Before the Shang

    A series of neolithic cultures pre-date the Shang in China - archaeologists have, for example, revealed the remains of the Longshan culture in the Yellow River valley and the Yeushi culture in the Shandong region. Other sites, such as Erltiou with its impressive buildings, tombs, and paved roads, point to more sophisticated cultures, such as the Xia dynasty (who are thought to have existed from 2070 BCE)
  • 2050 BCE

    Sound Symbols used in Egyptian Hieroglyphs

    By the Middle Kingdom of Egypt, some hieroglyphs have come to denote sounds, such as "m" (owl), "b" (lower leg), and "aa" (forearm).
  • 2040 BCE

    King Ur-Nammu Builds the Great Ziggurat of Ur

    The Ziggurat of Ur is built by King Ur-Nammu (r.2048 - 3030 BCE)
  • Period: 2024 BCE to 1786 BCE

    Middle Kingdom

    By 2040 BCE, the rulers of Thebes had grown increasingly powerful and become rulers of all of Egypt. Their domain was slightly larger than that of the Old Kingdom, and their merchants traveled further to establish new trade links. In 1640 BCE, pharaonic rule ended (for just over a century) when the Hyksos people, from the Levant, conquered Lower Egypt.
  • Period: 2010 BCE to 1880 BCE

    Ironworking in Uttar, Pradesh and Malabar, India

    Iron artifacts are made in Uttar, Pradesh and Malabar, India
  • 2000 BCE

    Turkeys become domesticated in Mexico

    Turkeys are domesticated in Mexico and used for their meat and their feathers, and later have ceremonial significance.
  • 2000 BCE

    Cross Country Cultivation

    Maize cultivation spreads from Mesoamerica to North America
  • 2000 BCE

    Mayans dosmesticate Turkeys

    Earliest domestication of Turkeys by the Mayans began 2000 BCE
  • 2000 BCE

    Bronze casting begins

    Bronze casting is practiced by the Erlitou culture on the Yellow River.
  • 2000 BCE

    Indus Civilization’s Lapis Lazuli Trade Flourishes in Shortughai

    With its lapis lazuli, Shortughai became a key trading colony of the Indus civilization
  • 2000 BCE

    Nubian Luxury Goods Traded in Egyptian Cities

    Egyptian cities traded with Nubia, importing luxury goods such as gold, copper, ebony, and incense.
  • 2000 BCE

    Cretans Colonize Cythera

    Cretan settlers arrived on Cythera; the Minoan colony prospered until around 1400 BCE.
  • 2000 BCE

    Silk Road Has Western Predecessor

    The Western trade route links China with Central Asia; it is a forerunner of the Silk Road between Eastern and Western Asia
  • Period: 2000 BCE to 614 BCE

    Ashur, City of the God Ashur

    This city was the site of the god Ashur's only temple. An influential city-state in the early 2nd millennium BCE, it was integrated into the northern Mesopotamian kingdom forged by Shamshi-Adad (c.1813-1781 BCE). He was reviled as an unlawful conquerer but 500 years later, when Ashur was the heart of an expanding kingdom, the Assyrians claimed Shamshi-Adad as an ancestor of their royal house.
  • 1900 BCE

    Construction of the Temple of Karnak starts

    Construction of the Temple of Karnak, at Thebes in Egypt, begins
  • Period: 1900 BCE to 1450 BCE

    Minoan Palaces

    These complex buildings, the largest of which was at Knossos, seem to have combined the roles of a palace, administrative center, warehouse, and shrine. Constructed of several stories supported by wooden tapering columns they were adorned with wall paintings. Some rooms, decorated with bulls' horns and featuring altar-like structures, almost certainly had some ceremonial use.
  • Period: 1900 BCE to 1450 BCE

    Minoan Trade and Expansion

    The Minoans traded widely, visiting other Greek islands and settling on Rhodes, Thera (modern Santorini), Melos, and Cythera. They traded with Cyprus, Egypt, and Syria (importing metals such as copper, tin, and gold, as well as ivory), and their influence spread as far as the Levant. The palace of Zakros was probably a center for trade.
  • Period: 1900 BCE to 1700 BCE

    The construction of the Phaistos Palace

    A palace complex is begun at Phaistos; it becomes one of the largest Minoan sites on Crete
  • 1800 BCE

    Climate change affects the Indus Civilisation

    Climate change begins to affect the Indus Valley civilization
  • 1800 BCE

    Gournia becomes major trade center

    Sited on both north-south and east-west routes on Crete, Gournia became a major Minoan trading center.
  • Period: 1800 BCE to 1700 BCE

    The Hittites smelt iron for the first time

    Iron is first smelted by the Hittites
  • Period: 1782 BCE to 500

    Babylon, City of the God Marduk

    The ancient city first came into prominence as the capital of the kingdom of King Hammurabi. Home to the god Marduk's temple, Babylon was later closely associated with the kingship over all of Babylonia (southern Mesopotamia). In the first millennium BCE, the title of King of Babylon was coveted by every ruler who sought to control that region, including the Assyrian and later the Persian and Seleucid kings.
  • 1750 BCE

    The Minoan Scripts: Hieroglyphs and the Mysterious Linear A

    The Minoans of Crete write their own version of hieroglyphs but also use an as-yet-undeciphered script called Linear A
  • 1700 BCE

    The Hyksos take control the Nile Delta

    The Hyksos take control of the Nile Delta, ending Egypt's Middle Kingdom
  • Period: 1700 BCE to 1500 BCE

    Earliest known alphabet is thought to be Proto-Canaanite

    Proto-Canaanite, the earliest known alphabet, is thought to have traveled from the Nile Delta or the Sinai Peninsula to the Levant.
  • 1650 BCE

    Hattusa is founded

    The Hittite capital of Hattusa was founded
  • 1646 BCE

    Volcano erupts at Thera

    A massive volcanic explosion occurs at Thera
  • 1640 BCE

    The Rise of the Hyksos: Chariots and Conquest in Lower Egypt

    Hyksos people conquered Lower Egypt with horsedrawn chariots.
  • Period: 1640 BCE to 1450 BCE

    The Decline of Minoan Civilization

    The reason for the decline of Minoan culture is unknown, but it may be connected to the eruption of the volcano on Thera in the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE. This destroyed the Minoan settlements of Akrotiri and may have disrupted the Minoan economy, allowing the Mycenaeans to take Minoan trade routes and settlements, becoming the largest power in the area.
  • 1627 BCE

    Thera Erupts, Preserving Minoan Masterpieces

    The Thera volcano erupts covering the Minoan settlement of Akrotiri in ash and preserving outstanding frescoes and other works of art.
  • 1600 BCE

    The Battle of Mingtiao Begins

    The Battle of Mingtiao takes place, and the Shang dynasty is established.
  • 1600 BCE

    Linear B is the earliest known writing in Greece

    The earliest known writing in Greek is in the "Linear B" script of the Myceneans.
  • 1600 BCE

    Minoans Colonize Miletus

    Minoans probably established a colony at Miletus; frescoes and pottery in the Minoan style suggest their presence.
  • 1600 BCE

    Minoan Influence on Phylakopi

    Minoan culture influenced the early Bronze Age settlement of Phylakopi on the island of Melos.
  • 1600 BCE

    Sanzingdui: A Trapezoidal City with Thick Walls

    The city of Sanzingdui was founded; trapezoidal in shape, it has thick enclosing walls.
  • 1600 BCE

    Ganges Valley: Birthplace of Indian Ironworking

    Iron is forged in the Ganges Valley
  • Period: 1600 BCE to 1100 BCE

    Mycenaean Settlements

    The Mycenaeans built their houses out of a mixture of stone and mud-brick; clay-tiled roofs were used at some sites. Their settlements were spread over much of Greece but concentrated near the major palace sites, such as Tiryns, Pylos, and Mycenae itself. The larger settlements acted as commercial and administrative centers and housed officials who were responsible to the palace.
  • Period: 1600 BCE to 1050 BCE

    Shang Territories

    From about 1600 BCE, the Shang moved southwards from their heartlands in the Yellow River valley to control a large part of northern China. They forced control of some areas to become vassal statues, grating these territories to family members, ministers, or tribal leaders. In return, the vassal rulers had to help defend the empire from nearby hostile states, pay taxes, and provide laborers to work on royal agricultural lands.
  • Period: 1600 BCE to 1050 BCE

    Shang Crafts and Fortifications

    Archaeologists have uncovered large Shang fortifications made of rammed earth. These structures suggest that the region was strategically important for the Shang: Erligang may have been an early Shang capital. Other finds there include the workshops of potters, bone workers (who made items from bone), and bronze workers. Shang cast bronzes are among the most impressive of early Chinese objects
  • Period: 1570 BCE to 1068 BCE

    Expanding Thebes’ Sacred Complex at Karnak

    The vast complex at Karnak in Thebes is expanded with temples to deities such as Amun-Re and Mut
  • Period: 1570 BCE to 1085 BCE

    New Kingdom

    Ahmose of Thebes (r. 1549 - 1524) laid the foundations for the New Kingdom and took power after expelling the Hyksos from Lower Egypt in 1532 BCE. Under later pharaohs, Egypt expanded its territory across the Mediterranean and reached the Fourth Cataract to the south. Trade increased, and renewed prosperity allowed the rulers to construct enormous temples.
  • 1500 BCE

    The Aryans invade the Indus Valley

    The Aryans infiltrate the Indus Valley from the North
  • 1500 BCE

    End of the Indus Valley, Arrival of the Aryans

    The Indus Valley civilization collapsed; the Aryans migrated to India from central Asia.
  • 1500 BCE

    Lapitan Pottery Arrives in Fiji

    Lapitan pottery reaches Fiji
  • Period: 1500 BCE to 1050 BCE

    The First Alphabets

    The earliest alphabet - a system of symbols denoting all language sounds, both consonants and vowels - can be traced to c. 1500 BCE, as what is known as Proto-Canaanite or Proto-Sinaitic. Some experts suspect it developed from a subset of Egyptian hieroglyphs. The people who used it passed on the idea to the Phoenicians, who had developed it into their own alphabet by 1050 BCE. Being maritime traders, they took their alphabet around the Mediterranean.
  • Period: 1500 BCE to 400 BCE

    Olmecs

    The Olmecs are known for their monumental earth platforms and mounds, fine jade artifacts, and giant head sculptures. Archaeological evidence suggests that the Olmecs created the first writing system and calendar in Mesoamerica. from their heartland in San Lorenzo, they traded widely into western Mexico and established trade relations with many Maya sites along the southern coast.
  • Period: 1500 BCE to 1000 BCE

    The Lapita Culture

    From 1500 BCE, settlers from the central Philippines spread a new type of pottery. Red-glazed and often decorated, it was the product of what is now called the Lapita culture. The Lapita people engaged in long-range trade, especially in obsidian, which was prized for the blades it could create. They spread eastwards, reaching Samoa by about 1000 BCE, and are considered to be the immediate ancestors of the Polynesians.
  • Period: 1479 BCE to 1425 BCE

    Thutmose III’s Naval Expeditions to Greece and Anatolia

    During Thutmose III's rule, Egyptian ships sailed across the Mediterranean to Greece and Anatolia.
  • Period: 1450 BCE to 1100 BCE

    Mycenaean Trade

    A wealth of finds from Mycenaean settlements and graves indicates the kind of items traded by the people of the Greek Bronze Age. Raw materials such as copper and tin crossed the region by land and sea and were used in ornate Mycenaean metalwork. Archaeologists have also found numerous pottery storage jars, which were used to transport wine and oil.
  • 1400 BCE

    Mycenaeans fortify the Acropolis in Athens

    Mycenaean rulers fortified the Acropolis in Athens, now the site of celebrated Classical ruins
  • 1400 BCE

    Danube Home to Celtic Origins

    The Celtic culture begins in the Upper Danube region
  • 1400 BCE

    The cementation process is created

    The cementation process, which makes iron stronger, is developed.
  • Period: 1400 BCE to 1200 BCE

    Homer's "Mighty-Walled" Tyrins at its Height

    The fortified Mycenaean settlement of Tyrins reaches its height: it is mentioned by Homer in the 'Iliad'.
  • Period: 1400 BCE to 1046 BCE

    Shang Millitary Power

    The Shang dynasty faced competition for power in both the east and northwest of their Yellow River heartlands. They had a small standing force of chariots and archers based at their capital, Yin (modern Anyang), from c.1400 BCE. This was supplemented by thousands of additional troops and weapons from vassal rulers. A Shang king could assemble an army of perhaps 13,000 men, armed with weapons such as dagger axes, which could usually subdue hostile states or rebels.
  • Period: 1353 BCE to 1336 BCE

    Reign of Akhenaten

    In 1351 BCE, Amenhotep IV came to the throne. He changed his name to Akhenaten in honor of the sun god Aten, built a new capital named after himself, and declared that Aten was the only god. His principal queen, Nefertiti, was a powerful influence during his reign. Later pharaohs destroyed Akhenaten's statues and removed his name from the king list's.
  • Period: 1300 BCE to 1190 BCE

    Homer's Troy

    Homer's epic poem the 'Iliad' identifies Mycenae as the home of the legendary Greek warrior Agamemnon, hero of the war against Troy. Hisarlik, near the Aegean coast of Turkey, is the probable site of Troy. Archaeologists there have discovered evidence of a major battle dating to the late Bronze Age, but is unknown if this relates directly to the Trojan War described by Homer.
  • 1285 BCE

    Ramesses II’s Victory Over Hittite Ambush

    Ramesses II and his troops routed the Hittites after being ambushed in Kadesh
  • Period: 1279 BCE to 1213 BCE

    Reign of Ramesses II

    In the 14th Century BCE, Egypt lost some of its territory in Canaan to the Hittites of Anatolia, leading to decades of tension and sometimes warfare between the two peoples. The formidable ruler Ramesses II challenged Hittite power at the Battle of Kadesh, preventing further Hittite advances.
  • Period: 1264 BCE to 1244 BCE

    Abu Simbel: A Monument to Ramesses II’s Victory

    Abu Simbel temple was built to commemorate Ramesse's victory at the Battle of Kadesh
  • Period: 1225 BCE to 1175 BCE

    Bronze Age Collapse

    The Bronze Age collapse, a complex event with multiple causes, led to the decline of major civilizations in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Near East, including the Hittite Empire, Mycenaean kingdoms, and the New Kingdom of Egypt, and initiated the Dark Ages.
  • 1200 BCE

    First use of Chinese Writing

    Chinese writing is used for the first time
  • 1200 BCE

    Earliest known Chinese writing is created

    The earliest known Chinese writing is inscribed on "oracle bones" by fortune tellers
  • 1200 BCE

    Mycenaean Palace of Kadmeion Destroyed by Fire

    The magnificent Mycenaean palace of Kadmeion at Thebes is destroyed by fire.
  • 1200 BCE

    Shang Culture Revealed in Xingan Artifacts

    The Shang occupy a site at Xingan (also known as Dayangzhou): archaeological finds there include hundreds of jade and bronze artifacts, indicating a highly developed culture.
  • 1200 BCE

    Hittite Empire Falls to Assyrian Iron

    The Hittite Empire collapsed; the Assyrians started using iron weapons and armour.
  • 1200 BCE

    Eastern Mediterranean Embraces Iron

    Ironworking spreads to the eastern Mediterranean region
  • Period: 1200 BCE to 220

    Chinese Characters

    From the late Shang Dynasty (1200 - 1050 BCE), various scripts evolved in China. They were all logographic, meaning the complex symbols, called characters, denoted words or morphemes (the smallest unit of language that conveys meaning), rather than sounds. By the Han Dynasty (206 BCE - 220 CE), certain standard scripts had developed, one of which is the unsimplified script still in use outside the People's Republic.
  • Period: 1200 BCE to 1000 BCE

    Philistines Arrive in Philistia, Ushering in New Era

    The Peleset (Philistines in the Bible) settled in Philistia - they were one of many "Sea Peoples" who overran the established kingdoms at the end of the Bronze Age.
  • Period: 1200 BCE to 900 BCE

    San Lorenzo: Cradle of Olmec Civilization

    San Lorenzo is a major center for Olmec culture
  • 1100 BCE

    Yangtze River Settlements Embrace Shang Culture

    Settlements along the Yangtze River come under Shang influence; the river is a major artery for trade.
  • 1100 BCE

    Shang-Dongyi Conflict Contributes to Shang Fall

    The Shang struggled for territory against the Dongyi people; this weakened the Shang, contributing to their fall to the Zhou dynasty.
  • 1050 BCE

    Phoenician Abjad: 22 Consonants and Their Roman Equivalents

    The Phoenician alphabet contains 22 symbols denoting only consonants - these three are equivalent to the Roman "B", "H", and "S".
  • Period: 1050 BCE to 250

    Western Alphabets

    The people who traded with the Phoenicians, such as the Greeks and Etruscans, adapted the Phoenician alphabet for their own languages. The Roman alphabet now used all over the world, derives from the script of the Etruscans. Exactly how the alphabet reached northern Europe, where it might have triggered the development of runic alphabets, remains unknown.
  • Period: 1020 BCE to 926 BCE

    Israel and Judah

    According to Judaeo-Christian tradition, Saul founded the kingdom of Israel, and Bible scholars put this date at around 1020 BCE. The kingdom reached its greatest extent under King David but split into Israel and Judah in 926 BCE.
  • 1006 BCE

    David becomes King of Israel

    David is anointed as King
  • 1000 BCE

    David Conquers Philistines, Expands Israelite Kingdom

    King David, Saul's successor, beats the Philistines and extends the Israelite kingdom; he makes Jerusalem his capital.
  • Period: 1000 BCE to 250

    Early Maya

    From 1000 BCE, the Maya began forming complex urban settlements with an elite class and entrenched religious practices. These settlements also featured ceremonial sites in the form of plazas and earthen mounds. Maya artwork during this period drew influence from the Olmecs.
  • Period: 1000 BCE to 400

    Adena Culture

    The Adena culture became seasonal settlers in the Ohio River valley once they introduced farming to their hunting and fishing lifestyle. Each social group comprised about 100 people, made up of between 4 and 6 clans. Using only digging sticks and baskets, the Adena created impressive earthworks, which were sacred ritual sites or where the elders were buried. The Adena traded in raw materials such as barite, marine shells, and copper, used to make tools and ornaments.
  • Period: 1000 BCE to 700 BCE

    Olmec Influence in Tlatilco Ceramics

    Ceramics produced in Tlatilco bear an Olmec influence
  • 900 BCE

    The Alphabet moves south to Arabia

    Alphabetic writing spread south to become the ancient South Arabian script, centuries before Arabic took over.
  • 900 BCE

    Tyre Controls Mediterranean Trade Routes

    The port of Tyre is a key link in the trade between the Middle Eastern empires and the Mediterranean controlling the shipping routes from Cyrus to southern Spain.
  • Period: 883 BCE to 859 BCE

    Assyria becomes an Empire

    Ashur was the Assyrian capital until King Assurnasirpal II transformed his realm from kingdom to empire. In 859 BCE, he moved the court to Kalhu (Nimrud). The new capital was designed to put the ruler, rather than the god Ashur, center-stage as the master of the world. This was also the case for the latter, even bigger capital cities of Dur-Sharrukin (Khorsabad), founded by Sargon II (721 - 705 BCE), and Nineveh, transformed by Sennacherib (704 - 681 BCE).
  • Period: 814 BCE to 146 BCE

    Carthage and its Territories

    From its origins as a trading post set up by the Phoenicians in 814 BCE. Carthage grew into a major power with outposts that extended along the North African coast, into southern Spain, and to parts of islands such as Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily. The city's formidable naval power made it seem strong against Rome, which in the early 3rd century BCE had no navy.
  • 800 BCE

    Mycenaean City Abandoned After Fire

    The major Mycenaean city of Pylos is abandoned after a fire
  • 800 BCE

    Celts Migrate, Ironworking Fuels Expansion

    Ironworking became widespread in central Europe; the Celtic migrations began.
  • 800 BCE

    Etruscan Civilization Emerges in Italy

    The Etruscan civilization begins in Italy
  • 800 BCE

    Motya: Phoenician Colony to Carthaginian Stronghold

    Motya is established as a Phoenician colony; it later became a key Carthaginian center on Sicily.
  • 800 BCE

    Tarquinii: Etruscan Trading Power

    Tarquinii emerges as one of the greatest Etruscan trading cities
  • 800 BCE

    Carthaginians Control Sardinian Coast, Promote Inland Cereal Farming

    The Carthaginians held many coastal areas of Sardinia and encouraged cereal farming inland
  • Period: 800 BCE to 400 BCE

    Hallstatt Culture Thrives on Iron and Salt

    The Hallstatt culture flourishes; its wealth is based on ironworking and salt mining.
  • 776 BCE

    Pan-Hellenic Games Held for the First Time

    The first pan-Hellenic games are held at Olympia in Greece
  • 753 BCE

    Rome is founded

    Rome is founded
  • Period: 753 BCE to 509 BCE

    The Founding of Rome

    Legend tells that Rome was founded in 753 BCE by the twins Romulus and Remes. Archaeological evidence suggests that its origins lie in a number of prehistoric villages near the Tiber, which expanded and eventually joined to form the city. The original local inhabitants merged with the Etruscans to produce a powerful city that formed a republic in 509 BCE and began to expand its territory soon afterward.
  • 734 BCE

    Syracuse: A Greek Power in the Mediterranean

    Syracuse was colonized by Greeks from the area around Corinth and forms alliances with Corinth and Sparta
  • 722 BCE

    Samaria Falls to Assyria, Israel Becomes a Province

    Samaria (Shechem) then the capital of Israel, is destroyed by Sargon II of Assyria; Israel becomes an Assyrian province.
  • Period: 722 BCE to 701 BCE

    Assyrian Conquest

    There are non-Biblical Assyrian sources for events when the Assyrian Empire conquered Israel and took over Judah as a vassal state. Jewish tradition tells us that 10 of the fabled 12 Tribes of Israel were dispersed, assimilated, enslaved, or otherwise lost. Assyrian records support that deportation as a means of subjugation was carried out. Israel became a province of Assyria. Judah survived with the two remaining tribes.
  • 706 BCE

    Sargon II Moves Capital to New City, Dur-Sharrukin

    Sargon II moved the royal court and central administration to a new capital, an ideal city created under the name "Fortress of Sharrukin" (Sargon is the Biblical spelling).
  • Period: 704 BCE to 681 BCE

    Sennacherib Expands Assyrian Empire

    Under the rule of Sennacherib, the new Iron Age power of Assyria annexed Israel and Judah and crushes Babylon.
  • 701 BCE

    Assyrians Conquer Lachish

    Assyrians invaded Judah and won a famous victory at the Siege of Lachish.
  • 700 BCE

    Etruscans create their own alphabet script

    The Etruscans of northern Italy, borrowing from the Phoenicians and Greeks, developed their own alphabet script.
  • Period: 700 BCE to 400 BCE

    The Etruscan Leagues

    To consolidate their power and strengthen their trading links, individual Etruscan cities formed alliances or leagues. There were small alliances among the Etruscans or the Padus Valley and Campania, but the largest of them was the Etruscan League in Etruria. Twelve city-states belonged to the league, and they met annually, probably at their sacred sanctuary in Volsinii, to elect a leader.
  • Period: 700 BCE to 270 BCE

    The Etruscans

    From around 700 BCE, the Etruscan civilization developed in three centers, the heartland of Etruria (modern Tuscany, Lazio, and Umbria), the valley of the Padus (Po) River, and in Campania to the south. The Etruscans became one of the most influential civilizations in the Mediterranean until their eventual displacement by the professional armies of Rome and their absorption into the Roman administration.
  • Period: 700 BCE to 250 BCE

    Magna Graecia

    Much of southern Italy was occupied by Italic-speaking peoples, such as the Sabini and the Sanites, but there were also Greek colonies in the south and in Sicily. The Greek presence was so strong that the Romans called the area Magna Graecia ("greater Greece"). Greek cities such as Naples and Syracuse were very powerful and brought Greek culture - including the Greek alphabet - to Italy. The Romans took over the area in the 3rd century BCE.
  • Period: 700 BCE to 338 BCE

    Greek Unity

    All Greek cities looked towards certain common places of "Pan-Hellenic" significance throughout the Greek, or Hellenic, world. These included Mount Olympus, the seat of the gods; Delphi, where an oracle spoke for all the Greeks; and venues of Pan-Hellenic festivals, such as Olympia.
  • Period: 680 BCE to 630 BCE

    Height of Assyrian Power

    In the 7th century BCE, the directly administered territories reached their largest extent under King Esarhaddon. His son, Assurbanipal, did not expand these provinces but greatly increased dominion over indirectly controlled states, such as Egypt and Elam. After his death, succession wars plagued the royal house. Babylonia and the Medes broke free and captured Ashur in 614 BCE and the capital Nineveh in 612 BCE.
  • 671 BCE

    Esarhaddon Conquers Memphis

    Assyrian king Esarhaddon captures Memphis and rules Egypt through native princes
  • 648 BCE

    Assyrians Capture Elam’s Capital, But Fail to Destroy Ancient Stele of Hammurabi

    The capital of the kingdom of Elam is conquered by Assyrian forces; an ancient stele with Hammurabi's laws, brought to Susa in the 12th century BCE, survives the assault intact.
  • 627 BCE

    Ashurbanipal Expands Assyria to Unprecedented Heights

    The Assyrian Empire became the largest in the world yet seen under King Ashurbanipal.
  • Period: 626 BCE to 539 BCE

    The Babylonian Empire

    In the wars marking the collapse of the Assyrian Empire, Nabopolassar (626 - 605 BCE) and his son Nebuchadnezzar II (605 - 562 BCE) forged the Babylonian Empire. The goal to control the caravan routes across the Arabian desert led to the conquest of Judah and long wars against Arab tribes. Before these plans came to fruition, the people of Babylon turned against the last king, Nabonidus (556 - 539 BCE), and hailed Cyrus to Persia as the new king of Babylon, ending Babylonian independence.
  • 623 BCE

    Lumbini: The Cradle of Buddhism

    The Buddha was born in Lumbini, according to Buddhist tradition.
  • 612 BCE

    Battle at Nineveh's Gates

    Nineveh is surrounded by a 12 km (7.5 mile) long fortification wall with 15 monumental gates; when the Babylonian and Median armies attack, much of the fighting takes place in and around the gates.
  • 605 BCE

    Carchemish: Babylonian Victory Shatters Assyrian Empire

    At Carchemish, Babylonian forces defeated the combined armies of Assyria and its ally Egypt, ending centuries of Assyrian power.
  • 600 BCE

    Etruscans Establish Capua on Fertile Land

    The Etruscans found the city of Capua, which is surrounded by rich farmland
  • Period: 600 BCE to 100

    Ge’ez: The South Arabian Offshoot That Became a Major Literary Language

    Ancient Ethiopic (Ge'ez) evolved as an offshoot of the South Arabian
  • 594 BCE

    Solon's Reforms Pave the Way for Athenian Democracy

    Athenian statesman Solon laid the foundations of democracy in Athens.
  • 586 BCE

    Babylon Conquers Jerusalem, Deports Israelites

    Israelites were deported from Jerusalem to Babylonia (southern Mesopotamia) by Nebuchadnezzar II after he conquered the city while expanding his Neo-Balylonian Empire.
  • 586 BCE

    Nebuchadnezzar Destroys Jerusalem, Takes People to Babylon

    When Nebuchadnezzar II conquered Jerusalem, the temple of Yahweh was destroyed and the people were taken to Babylon.
  • Period: 586 BCE to 539 BCE

    Babylon and Persia

    The Bible tells the story of the exile of the Israelites in Babylon. We have good independent sources for the deportation of prominent inhabitants of Judah to Mesopotamia (in modern Iraq), by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II. When allowed to return by Cyrus the Great, however, many had become prosperous and settled in exile and stayed where they were. This was the beginning of the worldwide Jewish diaspora.
  • 572 BCE

    Nebuchadnezzar Forges a New Babylon

    Nebuchadnezzar II conquered most of the Assyrian Empire to build a new Babylon Empire
  • 566 BCE

    Lumbini: Birthplace of the Buddha

    Lumbini is the birthplace of the Buddha
  • Period: 558 BCE to 365 BCE

    Magadha

    The state of Magadha in northeastern India became dominant during the time of the Buddha, who spent much of his life there. Magadha expanded under its ruler Bimbisara (c.558 - c.491 BCE), who took over the state of Anga to the east of his homeland and bolstered his power with marriage alliances, preparing the way for later rulers of Hagadha to extend their territories.
  • Period: 556 BCE to 539 BCE

    Usurper Nabonidus Seeks Legitimacy in Ancient Traditions

    A usurper, Nabonidus, seeks to legitimize his rule as Babylonian emperor by resurrecting ancient royal traditions, such as appointing his daughter the consort of the moon god of Ur. The city of Ur was even more ancient than Ashur or Babylon and, as such, was revered.
  • 550 BCE

    Cyrus Defeats Grandfather to Claim Mede Throne

    Cyrus defeats his maternal grandfather, Astyages, king of the Medes
  • Period: 550 BCE to 530 BCE

    Cyrus the Great and his Conquests

    Born in around 580 BCE, Cyrus II (known as Cyrus the Great) succeded his father, Cambyses I, as king of Persia in 559 BCE, In a span of just 20 years, he cast off the yoke of the Median Empire, a victory that won him both territory and vassals. He then conquered Lydia and Babylonia, together with much of central Asia, to create a vast empire. Cyrus is thought to have died in battle in around 530 BCE.
  • Period: 550 BCE to 547 BCE

    Cyrus Conquers Lydia

    Cyrus's campaign to conquer Lydia
  • 547 BCE

    Cyrus Defeats Croesus, Expands Persian Empire

    Cyrus defeats the Lydian king, Croesus
  • 547 BCE

    Cyrus Conquers Sardis

    Cyrus captures the Lydian capital, Sardis
  • 546 BCE

    Cyrus Builds Paragadae, His Imperial Capital

    The construction of Paragadae begins; it becomes the capital of Cyrus's empire
  • 539 BCE

    Cyrus's Conquest Brings Freedom to Israelites

    Cryus takes Babylon; he soon allows Israelites exiled from Jerusalem to return home.
  • 539 BCE

    Cyrus Permits Israelites' Return Home

    The Israelites living in Babylonia are permitted to return to Cyrus the Great of Persia after he conquers Babylon
  • 537 BCE

    Sravasti: Home to the Buddha's Renunciation

    In Shravasti, the Buddha chooses to live a life of renunciation and holiness.
  • 535 BCE

    Cyrus Conquers Babylon, Creates Persian Empire

    Cyrus Persia attacks Babylon and absorbs its empire
  • 530 BCE

    Cyrus the Great Defeated and Killed by Massagetae

    Cyrus is defeated by the Massagetae and killed
  • Period: 529 BCE to 522 BCE

    Cambyses and the Conquest of Egypt

    The Conquest of Egypt became the goal of Cyrus's successor, Cambyses II. To do so, he made alliances with Arabian leaders and gained the support of the Greeks, who had formerly been allies of Egypt. Cambyses defeated Egypt at Pelusium in 525 BCE; however, his troops were unable to cross the desert to Sudan, so he failed to make conquests further south.
  • 528 BCE

    Sarnath: A Buddhist Mecca

    The Buddha first preached at Sarnath, which became a pilgrimage site and home to thousands of monks in the early centuries.
  • 528 BCE

    Buddhahood Attained

    The Buddha achieves the state of enlightenment.
  • 522 BCE

    Susa Becomes Persian Administrative Center

    Once the capital city of Elam, Susa became an important Persian administrative center.
  • Period: 522 BCE to 486 BCE

    The Empire Under Darius I

    Darius ascended to the throne in 522 BCE and carried out many reforms. He introduced a new monetary system, adopted Aramaic as the new administrative language, and organized the empire into provinces under governors (satraps). Darius built canals and roads (including the famous royal road linking Susa to Assyria and Anatolia); he erected monuments and temples; and he built royal palaces in the cities of Susa and Persepolis.
  • 520 BCE

    Darius I Begins Construction of Persepolis

    Darius I ordered work to start a new capital, Persepolis
  • 516 BCE

    Darius I Reaches Ghandhara, Expanding Persian Empire

    Darius I reaches Ghandhara at the northern reaches of the Indus River
  • Period: 516 BCE to 513 BCE

    The Campaign of Darius I

    In 516 BCE, Darius I began a military campaign in Central Asia that took him through Bactria and Gandhara. From here, he conquered the lands by the Indus River and engaged the Greek explorer Scylax of Caryanda to survey the Indian Ocean. Darius fought campaigns to stamp out a series of revolts across the empire, most notably in Babylonia and in Scythia (in Eastern Europe), where he asserted Persian dominance, before beginning his attempted conquest of Greece.
  • 515 BCE

    Darius I Expands Persian Empire to Indus River

    Darius I conquers the Indus Valley region
  • 513 BCE

    Darius I invades Scythia

    Darius I invades Scythia
  • 509 BCE

    Roman Republic Established

    The Roman Republic was founded
  • 500 BCE

    Persian Royal Road Opens

    The Persian Royal Road is completed
  • Period: 500 BCE to 150 BCE

    Citizen Colonies

    To consolidate its control of conquered territory and to secure strategic locations, Rome planted colonies across Italy. These colonies generally had about 300 Roman citizens and their families, each of whom was allocated a plot of land confiscated from the defeated locals. These colonies were often set up at existing cities, as a kind of garrison, rather than being independent cities.
  • Period: 500 BCE to 224

    The Persian Royal Road

    Built in c.500 BCE, the Persian Royal Road later came to form part of the Silk Road, providing a link to the Roman Empire. However, by the 1st century CE, hostility between Rome and the Parthian Empire (which now ruled Persia) increased the risk of travel along the Royal Road. As a result, more Chinese goods bound for Europe were despatched by alternate routes to Indian ports, where Roman ships picked up the cargo and carried it across the Indian Ocean.
  • Period: 499 BCE to 494 BCE

    Ionian Revolt

    Backed by the Greek city-states of Athens and Eritrea, the governor of the Ionian city of Miletus, Aristagoras, led a revolt against Persian rule in 499 BCE. The uprising spread to many cities along Peria's western frontier. In 498 BCE, allied Greek forces destroyed the Persian provincial capital Sardis, but the Persian fightback culminated in a victory at Lade (494 BCE), which ended the revolt.
  • 498 BCE

    Greek Fire Surprise Catches Persians Off Guard

    Greek forces caught the Persians unaware. A fire breaks out and destroys the lower city.
  • Period: 497 BCE to 479 BCE

    Greeks vs. Persians: The Persian War

    The Persian War is fought between the Greek city-states and Persia
  • 494 BCE

    Uprising Against Persia Crushed at Miletus

    An uprising against Persian rule is quelled at the siege of Miletus
  • 492 BCE

    Darius I invades Macedonia

    Darius I invades Macedonia
  • 492 BCE

    Mount Athos Storm Wreaks Havoc on Mardonius's Fleet

    A storm drives Mardonius's fleet onto rocks off Mount Athos, wrecking most of the ships and killing 20,000 men
  • 492 BCE

    Macedonia Falls to the Persians

    Mardonius's army annexes Macedonia - previously a vassal state of the Persian Empire
  • 492 BCE

    Mardonius Leads Persian Fleet Against Greece

    A Persian fleet led by Mardonius sets sail to launch a direct attack on the Greek city-states.
  • Period: 492 BCE to 479 BCE

    The Greek Wars

    Darius I, angered by Athenian support for revolts against the Persian empire, vowed to take the whole of Greece, but his army of 20,000 was defeated at Marathon by an Athenian-led force. After Darius's death in 486 BCE, his successor, Xerxes, tried again to conquer Greece. He took control of the mainland north of Corinth and defeated Athens, but withdrew most of his army after losing the Battle of Salamis in 480 BCE.
  • Period: 492 BCE to 490 BCE

    First Persian Invasion

    In 492 BCE, Persian King Darius (r.522 - 486 BCE) ordered an attack on Miletus. Under Mardonuis's command, the Persian fleet sailed into the Aegean Sae and destroyed the Ionian fleet. Meanwhile, the army recaptured Miletus and subjugated Thrace and Macedonia, but the expedition met an unlikely end when the fleet was struck by a storm.
  • 491 BCE

    Mardonius's Fleet Subdues Thassos

    Mardonius's fleet reaches Thassos, where the people submit to Persian rule.
  • 490 BCE

    Defeat at Marathon

    Led by Darius and Artaphernes, a second Persian fleet sacked Naxos and prevailed in its siege of Eritrea. At Marathon, the fleet faced a smaller but well-drilled Athenian force who, having waited for several days for Spartan help, attacked the larger Persian army. The assault forced Persian troops to flee from their ships.
  • 486 BCE

    Buddha Breaks Cycle of Rebirth

    The Buddha attains Nirvana - the ultimate spiritual goal of being released from the cycle of rebirth
  • 480 BCE

    Thermopylae: A Noble Defeat, but Athens Falls

    A small Greek force resists the Persian army at Thermopylae but is eventually overcome; Athens falls soon afterward.
  • 480 BCE

    Battle of Thermopylae

    Although outnumbered by Persian forces, the Greeks held the narrow pass at Thermopylae for three days as Spartan King Leonidas mounted a last-ditch defense with a small force of Spartans and took other Greek soldiers. Ultimately, the Persians took control of the pass, but Leonidas's glorious defeat instilled belief into the Greeks that they were capable of prevailing against the Persians.
  • 480 BCE

    Battle of Salamis

    In September 480 BCE, the Greeks once more faced a much larger enemy force at Salamis. the Athenian general Thermistocles employed a bold tactic; he lured the Persian fleet into the narrow straits and then launched an all-out assault from all sides. His victory forced the remaining Persian ships to retreat to Anatolia.
  • 480 BCE

    Persian Conquest of Boeotia After Thermopylae

    Following the Persian victory at Thermopylae, the state of Boeotia fell.
  • 480 BCE

    Persians Defeat Greeks at Artemision

    Persian fleet inflicted heavy losses on the Greek allied fleet at the Battle of Artemision.
  • 480 BCE

    Greeks Defeat Persians at Salamis

    Helped by its position in the narrow straits of Salamis, the Greek navy defeats the much larger Persian fleet
  • 480 BCE

    Athens Falls to Persian Army

    The Persian army sacks Athens and burns the city.
  • 480 BCE

    Xerxes Launches Invasion of Greece

    After crossing the Hellespont, Xerxes' army marched into Thrace and Macedonia.
  • Period: 480 BCE to 479 BCE

    The Second Invasion

    Darius's son, Xerxes, launched his campaign against the Greeks in 480 BCE. Xerxes made extensive preparations to invade mainland Greece by building depots, canals, and a boat bridge across the Hellespont. In response, many Greet city-states formed an alliance to defend themselves against the Persian force.
  • 479 BCE

    Battle of Plataea

    The two opposing armies met at Plataea, Boeotia, in August 479 BCE. The Greeks, as at Marathon eleven years earlier, employed superior military tactics to overcome a much larger Persian force. On the very same day, the Persian fleet in Anatolia suffered a heavy defeat at Mycale. The two decades ended Xerxes' ambitions to overrun Greece.
  • 479 BCE

    Spartans Break Persian Lines, Kill Mardonius

    Spartan forces break the Persian lines and kill Persian general Mardonius
  • 478 BCE

    Delos: Heart of the Delian League

    The tiny island of Delos is chosen as the seat of the treasury of the league led by Athens, giving its name to the Delian League.
  • Period: 478 BCE to 431 BCE

    Delian Legue

    In the wake of the Persian Wars (492 - 480 BCE), many Greek cities formed a league of cooperation, whose leaders met annually on the tine, central island of Delos. Athens emerged as the leader of this league but became even more heavy-handed in its leadership, sparking innumerable revolts, which it crushed ruthlessly.
  • Period: 478 BCE to 470 BCE

    Delian League Grows to 200 Cities with Ionia's Entry

    Ephesus and the other cities of Ionia joined the Delian League to protect themselves from Persia, swelling league numbers to around 200 cities.
  • 468 BCE

    Rome Conquers Antium from the Volsci

    Rome takes the city of Antium (modern Anzio) from the Italic Volsci people
  • 454 BCE

    Spartans Extend Peloponnesian War to the North

    The Peloponnesian War moves north as Spartans march through Thessaly and Thrace to capture Amphipolis
  • 454 BCE

    Parthenon Built with Delian League Funds

    Athenian general Pericles moves the Delian League treasury from Delos to Athens, ostensibly to protect it from Persian attack, but uses League funds to build the Parthenon.
  • 450 BCE

    Monte Alban: Heart of the Zapotec World

    Monte Alban is the Zapotec capital and a major ceremonial center
  • 437 BCE

    Romans Triumph at Veii

    Romans defeated the Etruscans at Veli
  • Period: 431 BCE to 404 BCE

    Pelopnnesian War

    Although Sparta formed an alliance with Athens to fight Persia, it now headed the rival Peloponnesian League and objected to Athens's high-handed imperialism. When war broke out between Sparta and Athens, most of Greece leaped to either one side or the other. Sparta emerged victorious, but the conflict plunged the region into disarray.
  • Period: 431 BCE to 404 BCE

    Hellespont Control Key to Peloponnesian War

    Control of the narrow strait of the Hellespont - the route to Athens ally, Byzantium, and the Black Sea - is key in the Peloponnesian War.
  • 430 BCE

    Athens Ravaged by Plague, Pericles Dies

    The Plague spreads in Athens; Pericles falls victim to it
  • 424 BCE

    Athens Conquers Cythera

    Athens captured Cythera from Sparta during the Peloponnesian War
  • 416 BCE

    Athens' Brutal Conquest of Melos

    The neutral island of Melos is taken by Athens and - in an act that shocks many at home in Athens - all inhabitants are massacred or enslaved.
  • 415 BCE

    Athens' Sicilian Expedition: A Disastrous Gamble

    Athens unwisely sends an expedition to attack Syracuse in Sicily, allowing Sparta to capture the entire Athenian navy; Athens now stands little chance of winning the war.
  • Period: 404 BCE to 338 BCE

    Greece Weakened

    The Peloponnesian War spelled an end to stability and a blow to prosperity in Greece. From this point on, power ebbed and flowed between city-states and leagues. The constant fighting began to open up opportunities for an outside power - Greek-speaking Macedonia to the north - to expand and take control of the region.
  • 400 BCE

    Wu: From Shang Vassal to Zhou Powerhouse

    The Wu people lived to the southeast of the main area of Shang power, and Wu later became an important state under the Zhou
  • 400 BCE

    Yueh People Expand Southward

    The Yueh people occupy the area to the south of Shang lands
  • 400 BCE

    Ostia: Gateway to Rome

    The colony at Ostia is of vital importance, guarding the mouth of the Tiber River
  • 396 BCE

    Veli Falls to Romans After Long Rivalry

    The Etruscan city of Veli finally fell to the Romans after frequent clashes with its neighbour.
  • 395 BCE

    Socrates' Impiety Trial Leads to Execution

    Socrates is tried and executed for impiety.
  • Period: 365 BCE to 321 BCE

    Nanda Empire

    Nanda, the first northern Indian empire, began in Magadha and extended westwards in the 4th century BCE. It was governed by a network of ministers, and trade was eased by a standardized system of weights and measures. The Nanda rulers imposed their power with a vast army. They were famous for their great wealth, and their capital at Pataliputra was especially lavish
  • Period: 350 BCE to 100 BCE

    Latin Colonies

    Not all citizens retained their rights as full Roman citizens; some were given the same status as the inhabitants of Latium who had earlier been conquered by Rome. The people of these "Latin" colonies had legal rights under Roman law but no right to vote in elections or stand for office. Most of Rome's socii (allies by treaty) were granted neither full citizenship nor Latin rights, which eventually led to an uprising.
  • Period: 350 BCE to 206 BCE

    Qin Expansionism

    Originally a small state on the western borders, Qin defeated neighboring states during the Warring States period and took control of a large swathe of western and southern China. Victory over the Han state in 230 BCE gave Qin the impetus to conquer the remaining states within a decade. In 221 BCE, Qin leader Ying Zheng took the title of Qin Shi Huang (The First Emperor) and ruled from Xianyang.
  • 340 BCE

    Romans Clash with Neighbors at Mount Vesuvius

    The Romans fought a coalition of their neighbors - the Latini, Campani, Volsci, and others - at the Battle of Mount Vesuvius.
  • 338 BCE

    Philip II of Macedonia Sweeps Through Greece

    Philip II of Macedonia (Alexander's Father) leaves his capital of Aegae and sweeps through Greece, defeats Athens and Thebes, and attempts to unify Greece under the League of Corinth.
  • 334 BCE

    Alexander Makes Ada of Caria Queen of Halicarnassus

    Alexander takes Halicarnassus after a siege. He appoints the local queen, Ada of Caria, to rule on his behalf.
  • 334 BCE

    Alexander Defeats Persian-Mercenary Alliance

    Alexander defeats a Persian force augmented by Greek mercenaries
  • Period: 334 BCE to 33 BCE

    Conquest of Anatolia

    Alexander confronted the Perusian amry for the first time at the Granicus River (in modern Kocabas, Turkey) in the early summer of 334 BCE. The Perusian army's plan to kill Alexander backfired because of its inability to hold its front line against the Macedonian cavalry. By spring 333 BCE, 30 cities in Anatolia had surrendered to Alexander.
  • 333 BCE

    Alexander Cuts Gordian Knot: Sign of Asian Conquest

    Alexander cuts the legendary Gordian Knot - a sign that he would conquer the rest of Asia.
  • Period: 333 BCE to 30 BCE

    Fight against Persia

    Alexander's first direct engagement with Persian king Darius III occurred at the Battle of Issus (333 BCE), where he emerged victorious and forced Darius to flee the battlefield. Alexander went on to capture Persepolis - the Persian ceremonial capital. A weak Persian Empire was all but wiped out when King Darius was killed by his satrap, Bessos, who then met hos own fate at the hands of Alexander.
  • 332 BCE

    Bloody Siege of Tyre Takes Toll on Both Sides

    The siege of Tyre results in both sides suffering a high number of casualties
  • Period: 332 BCE to 31 BCE

    Liberator of Egypt

    In 331 BCE, Alexander reached Egypt, where the Persian satrap surrendered peacefully. Alexander was seen as a liberator who had freed the country from Persian rule and was proclaimed the son of the Egyptian god Amun. He also founded the city of Alexandria, later the capital of the Greek kingdom of Egypt.
  • 331 BCE

    Macedonian Army Marches on Persian Royal Road

    Macedonian army transports military equipment along the Persian Royal Road during the conquest of Persia
  • 331 BCE

    Alexander Declared Pharaoh by Oracle of Ammon

    Oracle of Ammon proclaims Alexander the legitimate pharaoh of Egypt
  • Period: 330 BCE to 327 BCE

    Hellenism

    After the fall of the Persian Empire, Alexander conquered the remaining northeastern provinces between 330 and 327 BCE. Throughout his conquests, Alexander founded many cities. These were planned along classical lines and featured the works of Greek artists, to ensure that both the Greek language and the Hellenistic culture of his homeland spread across his empire.
  • 326 BCE

    Alexander the Great's Indian Campaign Begins

    Alexander the Great arrived in northern India
  • 326 BCE

    Thwarted by Mutiny

    In 326 BCE, Alexander turned his attention to India. He conquered Punjab in one great battle at the River Hydaspes (326 BCE), but the subsequent mutiny by his war-weary troops forced Alexander to head home. While his commander Craterus guided a section of the army and Nerchus took charge of the naval fleet, Alexander led his battalion across the Makran Desert, an error that resulted in a large number of deaths.
  • 326 BCE

    Alexander's Troops Refuse to March Further

    Following the Battle of Hydaspes, Alexander's troops staged a mutiny, refusing to engage in any more battles.
  • 325 BCE

    Alexander's Army Scorched in Makran Desert

    Many troops in Alexander's battalion perish in the heat of the Makran Desert.
  • 325 BCE

    Alexander's Fleet Returns via Persian Gulf

    Under Nearchus's command, Alexander's fleet sails back up the Persian Gulf
  • 323 BCE

    Alexander the Great Passes Away

    Alexander the Great dies
  • 322 BCE

    India Unites Under Mauryan Empire

    The Mauryan Empire was founded in India
  • Period: 321 BCE to 185 BCE

    Mauryan Empire

    In 321 BCE, Chandragupta Maurya conquered the Nanda Empire, gaining support from Nanda factions who resented their rulers' wealth. He extended his empire westwards into the edges of the area previously occupied by Alexander the Great; Chandragupta's son and successor, Bindusara, later added territory in southern India. The empire was the largest India had seen, and lasted until 181 BCE.
  • 317 BCE

    Mauryans Transform Taxila into Cultural Center

    Taxila was taken over by the Mauryans; it became a center of arts, crafts, and learning and the capital of the Mauryans northern province.
  • 312 BCE

    Rome Builds First Aqueduct

    The AquaAppia, Rome's first aqueduct is constructed
  • 300 BCE

    Monte Albán Boasts More Than 5,000 Residents

    Monte Alban is among the fastest-growing cities in Mesoamerica, with a population of more than 5,000
  • 300 BCE

    Maya Build First Giant Pyramid Temples with Stucco Masks

    Preclassic Maya constructs among the earliest giant pyramid temples, bearing large stucco masks depicting the deities of Maya mythology
  • 300 BCE

    Celts Cross the Channel to Britain

    The Celts crossed the English channel to Britain
  • 300 BCE

    South Indian Kingdoms Forge Friendly Ties with Mauryans

    The peoples of the south, such as Cholas, Pandyas, and Cheras have friendly relations with the Mauryans.
  • 300 BCE

    Suvarnagiri: Southern Mauryan Capital and Trading Hub

    Suvarnagiri is the southern Mauryan capital. It is a trading center a the meeting point of several routes.
  • 300 BCE

    Tosali: Likely Capital of Mauryan East

    Tosali is probably the capital of the eastern province of the Mauryan Empire.
  • 300 BCE

    Rome Conquers Brundisium

    The Greek settlement of Brundisium (modern Brindisi) was conquered by the Romans
  • 300 BCE

    Rome Conquers Greek Colony of Paestum

    The Romans captured the Greek colony of Paestum after their war with King Pyrrhus, ruler of Epirus on mainland Greece.
  • 300 BCE

    Buddhism in Sri Lanka

    Traditional accounts date the arrival of Buddhism on the island known as Sri Lanka to c.236 BCE. It is said that faith was brought to Sri Lanka by Mahinda, son of Ashoka, and that the emperor's daughter Sanghamittra also moved there to teach the local women. Several monasteries were founded during the reign of King Devanampiya Tissa (r.307 - 267 BCE).
  • 300 BCE

    Buddhism in Kashmir

    Buddhism had arrived in Kashmir by the time of India's Mauryan empire in 321 BCE. Kashmir became a center for the faith under the Mauryan emperor Ashoka (r.268 - 232 BCE). The area was well connected with the rest of the empire, and from there Buddhism spread outwards, finding routes to central Asia, Tibet, and China.
  • Period: 300 BCE to 600

    Teotihuacan

    The multi-ethnic city of Teotihuacan was the center of a distinctive culture based on intensive agriculture, polytheism, and the ritualized practice of human sacrifice. The city's remarkable ruins, such as the large pyramids and multi-family compounds, bear testaments to its stature. The city also traded extensively - obsidian tools and pottery originating in the city have been unearthed in many places across Mesoamerica.
  • 272 BCE

    Asoka the Great Expands Maurya Empire

    Asoka the Great becomes emperor of Maurya; he expands the empire greatly
  • Period: 268 BCE to 400

    Indian Scripts

    South Asia has a profusion of syllabic scripts, all descended from Brahmi, which dates back at least to Ashoka's time (268-232 BCE) but whose origins are obscure. Brahmi may have developed indigenously, or been adapted from alphabets, such as Aramaic, from western Asia. What is certain is that Indian writing has no known link with the mysterious and undeciphered script of the long-lost Indus Valley civilization.
  • 264 BCE

    Castrum Novum: A Maritime Colony for Rome's Defense

    The maritime colony of Castrum Novum is set up to help defend the coast north of Rome
  • 264 BCE

    Romans Land at Messana

    The Romans land at Messana, with only minimal opposition
  • Period: 264 BCE to 241 BCE

    First Punic War

    The first wars in Sicily began with a local conflict between Carthaginian and Roman forces. In 264 BCE, Carthaginian forces invaded Sicily, prompting the Romans to take Messana. Despite lacking sea power, the Romans built their first fleet and devised successful naval warfare tactics. By 241 BCE, they had taken Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia from a weakened Carthage.
  • 262 BCE

    Romans Crush Carthaginians at Agrigentum

    The Romans defeated a Carthaginian force at Agrigentum, before destroying the city and taking the inhabitants as slaves.
  • 261 BCE

    Ashoka's Conquest of Kalinga Leads to Buddhist Conversion

    Kalinga is taken by Ashoka; he becomes a Buddhist after witnessing the death of thousands in the fighting there.
  • 260 BCE

    Romans Seize Carthaginian Ships at Mylae

    In a naval battle at Mylae, the Romans seized numerous Carthaginian ships, forcing a Carthaginian retreat
  • Period: 260 BCE to 232 BCE

    Edicts of Ashoka

    The Mauryan emperor Ashoka converted to Buddhism after seeing the carnage that accompanied the conquest of Kalinga in 261 BCE. Ashoka set up pillars and had rocks inscribed with his edicts - announcements of his conversion to Buddhism and commitment to Buddhist teachings. The edicts cover subjects ranging from religious tolerance and justice to kindness to animals.
  • 256 BCE

    Romans Fail to Conquer North Africa Despite Naval Victory

    The Romans built a large fleet, which the Carthaginians tried unsuccessfully to defeat at Economus. However, the Romans' subsequent invasion of North Africa was unsuccessful
  • 250 BCE

    Brahmi Script: An Indic Writing System Derived from Western Scripts

    Brahmi script (possibly influenced by syllabic or alphabet scripts from the West) is used in India.
  • Period: 250 BCE to 150 BCE

    Grave Creek: Adena Burial Mound Marvel

    Grave Creek is among the largest conical-type burial mounds by the Adena people
  • 221 BCE

    Qin Unites China Under 40 Commanderies

    The Qin divided China into 40 commanderies (local districts), each managed by an administrative centre such as Pengli.
  • 221 BCE

    Xianyang Becomes Capital of Unified China

    China's first emperor Qin Shi Huang establishes the Qin Empire and made Xianyang its capital
  • Period: 221 BCE to 210 BCE

    Reign of Qin Shi Huang

    Qin Shi Huang introduced a series of reforms to strengthen the unity of China. These included the abolition of feudalism (to eliminate the traditional local and family loyalties that could threaten central power) and the establishment of a new system of administrative districts. He unified China economically by standardizing weights and measures across the realm.
  • 220 BCE

    New Roads Link Capital to Countryside

    Transport reforms enable the creation of a road network radiating from the capital
  • Period: 220 BCE to 214 BCE

    Qin Transport Networks

    Another major construction to begin during Qin Shi Huang's reign was a complex road system to allow easier travel between cities and encourage trade nationwide. The emperor also ordered the construction of a major canal linking the Xiang and the Li Jiang Rivers, to ferry supplies to the army.
  • 218 BCE

    Qin Connects Walls, Builds Empire

    Qin Shi Huang ordered that old defensive walls such as the Yan and Zhao walls be fortified and connected.
  • 218 BCE

    Hannibal's Decisive Victory at the Trebia

    In the first major battle of the Second Punic War, Hannibal defeated the Romans under Tiberius Sempronius Longus, inflicting severe losses
  • Period: 218 BCE to 201 BCE

    Hannibal and the Second Punic War

    After the First Punic War, Carthage increased its influence in Spain, and in 218 BCE, their general Hannibal took Saguntum, a city under Roman protection. Hannibal's army then marched over the Apls, winning in northern Italy before heading for Rome. Another Carthaginian force led by Hasdrubal followed but was defeated by Rome. Hannibal could not take Rome without reinforcements and returned to defend Carthage.
  • Period: 218 BCE to 206 BCE

    Fortifying Defensive Walls

    Faced with the threat of attacks from nomadic people in the north and west. Qin Shi Huang mobilized a labor force numbering thousands to construct a unified fortification out of the defensive walls, built by several Chinese rulers during the Warring States period. The Great Wall would become the Qin Dynasty's most famous legacy.
  • 217 BCE

    Hannibal Crushes Romans at Lake Trasimene

    Hannibal wiped out the Roman force under Galius Flaminius in the largest ambush in military history
  • 216 BCE

    Hannibal Traps Romans at Cannae

    Hannibal wins a major victory by trapping a much larger Roman force in a pincer movement
  • Period: 215 BCE to 203 BCE

    Romans Force Hannibal to Abandon Italy

    Unable to engage the Romans in a decisive battle, Hannibal is finally forced to abandon his campaign in Italy
  • 214 BCE

    Imperial Army Marches South to Conquer

    The imperial army marched south to conquer the southern tribes.
  • 210 BCE

    Terracotta Army Guards Qin Shi Huang's Tomb

    Qin Shi Huang is buried with an army of 8,000 terracotta warriors in the palace tomb near Fengjing (modern-day Xi'an).
  • 210 BCE

    Qin Shi Huang Dies on Tour of Shaqiu Palace

    Qin Shi Huang dies mysteriously in Shaqiu Palace
  • Period: 210 BCE to 202 BCE

    Scipio in Spain

    Roman forces continued to attack Carthaginian strongholds in Spain. In 206 BCE, the Roman general Scipio Africanus defeated Carthaginians at Ilipa, forcing them to leave Spain. He sailed to Africa in 204 BCE to pressurize the Carthaginians into agreeing to peace terms, but they reneged, hoping to overcome Scipio in battle. The two sides fought at Zama in 202 BCE; Carthage was defeated and had to give up its Mediterranean islands to Rome and pay a war indemnity.
  • Period: 210 BCE to 206 BCE

    The Fall of Qin

    In 210 BCE, Qin Shi Huang died while on a tour of eastern China. The people were told that he was making the trip to inspect the empire, but was in fact a quest to find an elixir of immortality. Civil disorder erupted following the emperor's death and ended the Qin dynasty collapsing in 206 BCE.
  • 209 BCE

    Hannibal's Elephantine Innovation

    The army that Hannibal took across the Alps reportedly included 37 war elephants, an innovation that came to the Mediterranean from India.
  • 208 BCE

    Qin Shi Huang Expands Empire Beyond China

    Qin Shi Huang continued his military campaigns after unification in a bid to expand Qin territory.
  • 206 BCE

    Han Government Establishes Local Administrative Centers

    Han government designates a local administrative center for each commandery
  • Period: 206 BCE to 220

    Ancient Kicks to Modern Rules: A Soccer Journey

    While the exact origin is unclear, evidence suggests soccer-like games existed in ancient China as early as 206 BC. The modern form we know today, with standardized rules and regulations, emerged in England during the 19th century, with the formation of the Football Association in 1863 being a pivotal moment.
  • 202 BCE

    Hannibal's Return: Defeat in North Africa

    Hannibal is ordered home to North Africa to defend Carthage but is defeated by Scipio Africanus
  • Period: 202 BCE to 195 BCE

    First Han Emperor

    Liu Bang defeated the least rebellion at the Battle of Gaixia in 202 BCE, after which he took the name Gaozu as Han's first emperor, and reunified the realm by 206 BCE. He kick-started economic recovery by cutting taxes and investing in trade by nationalizing the iron and salt industries. He also invested in the country's transport infrastructure, which included the construction of canals in central China
  • 200 BCE

    Celts Embrace Iron Age

    The use of iron in the Celtic world expands significantly
  • 200 BCE

    Invasions from the North

    In the 2nd century BCE, the powerful Chinese Han dynasty expanded its boundaries. This put pressure on people in areas such as Gansu; they moved south, in turn displacing local Scythian populations. The result was the movement of people across the Indus, deep into areas such as Saurashtra, which helped to undermine already weakening Mauryan power.
  • 200 BCE

    El Teul: 1,800 Years of Continuous Habitation

    Settlement founded, El Teul was continually inhabited for about 1,800 years until the Europeans arrived in 1531.
  • 200 BCE

    Ajanta's Rock-Cut Wonders

    Rock-cut structures are begun at Ajanta; they are used at Buddhist monasteries and halls of worship
  • Period: 200 BCE to 9

    The begining of the Evolution of the Latin Script in Europe

    The Romans took their alphabet with them as they conquered Western Europe
  • Period: 200 BCE to 500

    Hopewell Culture

    Most likely influenced by Adena, the Hopewell culture was made up of independent villages that shared a common culture based on their distinctively styled artifacts. Besides conical mounds, the Hopewells also built some of the most elaborate earthen architecture of the Eastern Woodlands, including platform mounds in Fort Ancient, Marksville, and Pinson as well as effigy mounds, which were often shaped like animals such as a bear or bird.
  • Period: 195 BCE to 23

    Chang'an

    The Han initially chose Luoyang as its capital but then ordered the construction of a new capital a few miles from the former Qin capital. Chang'an (modern Xi'an) was proclaimed the capital in 195 BCE, with the newly built Weiyang Palace as its centerpiece. The city grew into a bustling cosmopolitan hub with nearly 250,000 citizens - second only to Rome in size and influence.
  • 155 BCE

    Athens Sends Philosophical Ambassadors to Rome

    Athens sends delegates of its three great schools of philosophy to Rome
  • Period: 149 BCE to 146 BCE

    Rome Crushes Carthage in Siege

    Carthage is besieged and finally crushed by the Roman army.
  • Period: 149 BCE to 146 BCE

    Third Punic War

    When Rome refused to stop its ally Numidia from raiding Carthage's borders, Carthage went to war in defense. The Carthaginians agreed to surrender when Rome sent an army in 149 BCE but revolted against Rome's increasing demands, especially that the city be moved inland. Rome launched a siege that the Carthaginians resisted for two years until Roman commander Scipio Aemilianus captured the city in 146 BCE and utterly destroyed Carthage.
  • 146 BCE

    Carthage Falls to Rome

    Carthage is destroyed by Rome
  • 146 BCE

    Greece Becomes a Roman Province

    Greece comes under Roman rule
  • Period: 141 BCE to 87 BCE

    Wu Wages War

    Under Emperor Wu Di, the Han carried out extensive military operations to expand the empire's sphere of influence. Han forces took control of key trading cities Cherchen, Kashgar, and Khotan, and through the conquests of Nanyue and Korea, the realm extended its southern and eastern frontiers. Campaigns against the Xiongu drove the tribe to the Gobi Desert.
  • Period: 138 BCE to 125 BCE

    Zhang Qian's Expedition

    As an envoy of China's Han government, explorer Zhang Qian returned to the Chinese capital after a 13-year expedition with favorable reports on commercial possibilities with regions west of the Tien Shan mountains. The Han formed alliances with several states in Xinjiang making the passage through the Tarim Basin far safer for merchants.
  • Period: 133 BCE to 57 BCE

    Extending the Great Wall

    Despite the Han's military successes, tribes such as the Xiongnu, Xianbei, and Wuhan remained a constant threat, which prompted the government to extend the Great Wall right across China's northern border. The extension not only provided a defense against northern tribes but also allowed the Han to open a safe passage westwards and establish profitable trade links with the outside world, giving rise to the famous Silk Road.
  • 130 BCE

    Silk Road Begins in Chang'an

    The Han capital Chang'an serves as the eastern terminus of the Silk Road
  • 127 BCE

    Xiapi Canals Expanded for Easier Trade

    Expansion of the canals in Xiapi eases the transport of goods such as salt, timber, and copper
  • 121 BCE

    Romans Establish First Colony in France: Gallia Narbonensis

    Gallia Narbonensis (Languedoc and Provence) became the first Roman colony in France
  • Period: 120 BCE to 221

    Popular Han Exports

    During the Han era, merchants based in central Asia introduced goods such as spices, precious stones, and glass into Han markets. Notable Chinese exports included silk thread, textiles, and bronze mirrors. Towards the end of the Han era, Cai Lun invented paper, and it is believed that the technique to produce this revolutionizing invention traveled to the west via the Silk Road.
  • Period: 120 BCE to 221

    Merv: Oasis City and Merchant Hub

    The oasis city of Merv is a key stop, for traveling merchants, where they often brought fresh horses or camels
  • Period: 120 BCE to 23

    Silk Road Caravans Depart Chang'an

    Caravans bearing Chinese goods start their journey westwards from the Han capital, Chang'an
  • 112 BCE

    Han Conquest of Nanyue

    Forces led by General Lu Bode and Yang Pu brought the kingdom of Nanyue under Han rule.
  • Period: 104 BCE to 1227

    Dunhuang

    While the flow of goods along the Silk Road faltered with the fall of the Han Empire in 221 CE, the garrison city of Dunhuang grew into an important center for Buddhism. Buddhist pilgrims and travelers from India reached the city via the Silk Road to spread the religion. Over a 1,000-year period, they dug the now-famous Mogao Caves in Dunhuang, decorating them with murals depicting aspects of Buddhist culture.
  • 101 BCE

    Great Wall Reaches Peak Length Under Han Dynasty

    The Great Wall reached its longest extent during the Han Dynasty, spanning 10,000km (6,200 miles) in total
  • 80 BCE

    Alexandria Falls to Rome, Becomes Grain Shipping Hub

    The city of Alexandria formally passed into Roman hands; it remains an important center for shipping grain across the Mediterranean
  • 68 BCE

    Rome Makes Judea a Client Kingdom

    The Roman leader Pompey besieges Jerusalem, defeating the Jews and making Judah into a client kingdom
  • 64 BCE

    Roman Judaea Expands to Include Samaria and Galilee

    Roman Judaea included regions such as Samaria and Galilee (both were within the ancient kingdom of Israel and later, independent Judaea).
  • Period: 63 BCE to 66

    Roman Rule

    Judaea was conquered by Rome. Until then, it was a kingdom that won its independence from the Hellenistic (Greek) Seleucid Empire, set up by Alexander the Great, which crumpled in 110 BCE. The Romans set up Judaea as a client state. Herod the Great assumed the throne as Rome's vassal in 40 BCE and proceeded to extend his kingdom.
  • 60 BCE

    Han Military Governor's Residence Built in Kashgar

    The Han built a military governor's residence in Kashgar
  • 58 BCE

    River Rhine Becomes Roman Empire's Northern Border

    Julius Caesar reaches the River Rhine; the river becomes the Roman Empire's northern frontier
  • Period: 58 BCE to 50 BCE

    The Conquest of Gaul

    The Romans had annexed the southern parts of Gallia (Gaul) in 121 BCE, but the whole territory (the extent of modern France and Belgium) was conquered between 58 and 50 BCE by Julius Caesar. As well as opening up sources of raw materials, including lead and silver, this conquest allowed Rome to take advantage of the River Rhine as a line of communication. It also won Julius Caesar's popularity and his army's loyalty.
  • Period: 55 BCE to 50

    The Conquest of Britain

    Julius Caesar unsuccessfully attempted to invade Britain in 50 BCE, but the country was conquered from 43 CE onwards, under the emperor Claudius. The Romans took the southeast easily after a major battle, but encountered resistance elsewhere, especially in Wales and the north, so the country took decades to bring under imperial control. During the second century, the Romans established a northern border by building Hadrian's Wall.
  • Period: 49 BCE to 44 BCE

    Carthage Reborn as Rome's Granary

    The city of Carthage, destroyed during the Punic wars, is rebuilt by the Romans: it becomes an important "granary" of the empire
  • 44 BCE

    Caesar Falls to Assassins

    Julius Ceaser is assassinated
  • Period: 40 BCE to 4

    Herod the Great's Expanding Kingdom

    The kingdom of Herod the Great, although he is a vassal of Rome, extends beyond Roman Judaea.
  • Period: 33 BCE to 44

    North Africa

    In 33 BCE, the Berber kingdom of Mauretania became a Roman client kingdom. It was later annexed by Rome and from 44 CE, was ruled directly as the province of Mauretania Caesariensis and Mauretania Tingitana. Further east, Octavian defeated his rival Mark Antony and his love Queen Cleopatra VII in 30 BCE. North Africa became a valued supplier of corn, marble, slaves, and other goods to Rome.
  • 31 BCE

    Octavian Conquers Egypt at Actium

    Octavian defeats Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium, giving Rome control of Egypt
  • 31 BCE

    Octavian Becomes First Roman Emperor

    Octavian becomes Emperor Augustus of Rome
  • 27 BCE

    Ephesus: New Capital of Asia

    The ancient Greek city of Ephesus was made the capital of the province of Asia by Augustus
  • 17 BCE

    Cappadocia Becomes Roman Province

    Cappadocia became a Roman province under Emperor Tiberius
  • 1 CE

    Antioch Reborn: A Roman Capital in the East

    The city of Antioch was rebuilt by the Romans, who saw it as an eastern capital
  • 1 CE

    Buddhism in China

    Missionaries traveling on the Silk Road probably brought Buddhism to China, and translations of Buddhist writings were being made by 148 CE. These texts replaced emphasis on meditation and wisdom, which appealed to people used to philosophies such as Daoism and Confucianism. Buddhism also adopted the Daoist idea of the sacred mountain - A wild, lonely place, conductive to quite meditation.
  • 1 CE

    Wuwei: A Buddhist Oasis on the Silk Road

    The trading settlements of Wuwei on the Silk Road are a stopping point for Buddhist monks on the way to China; many temples and grottoes are built here.
  • Period: 1 CE to 101

    The Romanization of Spain: A Struggle for Control

    The Romans gradually absorbed Spain into the empire, assimilating local tribes and putting down rebellions
  • Period: 1 CE to 500

    Use of Chinese Characters in Korean Languages

    Korean scribes try different methods of adapting Chinese characters to write their language
  • Period: 1 CE to 500

    Renner Mounds: A Kansas City Hopewell Legacy

    The mound site at Renner is inhabited by peoples of the Kansas City Hopewell culture
  • 9

    Germanic Tribes Defeat Rome, Expanding Territory

    Rome loses territory south of the Elbe after a defeat by Germanic tribes
  • 25

    Luoyang: New Capital and Silk Road Hub

    Proclaimed the capital of the later Han, Luoyang became the new eastern terminus of the Silk Road
  • Period: 25 to 220

    The Later Han

    In 9 CE, former palace official Wang Mang usurped the throne and proclaimed the Xin Dynasty. Wang Mang's reign proved unpopular and prompted peasant rebels to besiege the capital in 23 CE. Thereafter, power returned to the Han lineage, and Luoyang was named the new imperial capital. By forming alliances with the various northern tribes, the later Han gained control of territories to the north and west.
  • Period: 30 to 50

    Origins in Palestine

    According to the Acts of the Apostles (the fifth book of the New Testament), Jesus's persecuted followers dispersed from Palestine to set up Christian communities at such centers as Antioch. The faith seems to have spread slowly in the eastern Mediterranean until the work of missionaries, such as St Paul, took it further afield.
  • Period: 35 to 55

    St Paul and the early Christian Churches

    St Paul's four missionary journeys took him as far afield as Asia Minor, Greece, Rome, and possibly Spain. He founded churches as he went and encouraged his followers to start yet more. Among the most famous of these 1st-century foundations were the Seven Churches of Asia Minor, mentioned in the Bible's Book of Revelation.
  • 50

    Paul Visits Corinth: A Return to the Crossroads

    Paul visits Corinth for the first time; he returns to the city in 58 CE
  • 50

    Paul Preaches in Thessalonica

    Paul visits Thessalonica and preaches at one of the city's synagogues.
  • Period: 50 to 500

    Southwest Communities - North America

    Following the introduction of maize in the southwest, disparate groups of semi-nomads changed to a more settled agrarian lifestyle and began living in pit-dwellings (earthen houses partly dug into the ground). By 500 CE, a network of small villages had emerged. These clustered around larger centres, whose chiefs controlled a system of irrigation canals that permitted higher agricultural yields to sustain the area's growing population.
  • Period: 52 to 54

    Ephesus: Center of Paul's Missionary Work

    Paul lives in Ephesus; the port becomes a center for missionary activity
  • 60

    Christianity Arrives in Spain

    Christianity probably reached Spain; there were churches in cities such as Teletum (Toledo) by the late Roman period
  • 60

    Titus, First Bishop of Crete

    Titus, one of Paul's many converts, becomes the first bishop of Crete.
  • Period: 66 to 69

    Jewish Revolt Ends in Roman Victory

    Jewish revolt was suppressed by the army of Roman Emperor Vespasian.
  • Period: 66 to 74

    Jewish Revolt

    A series of Jewish revolts against Rome resulted in the dispersal of the Jewish people. The first involved the destruction and looting of the temple of Jerusalem, remembered in Rome as a relief on the Arch of Titus, showing Roman soldiers carrying off a menorah. The event is mourned by Jewish people on the saddest day in their calendar - the fast day, Tisha B'Av.
  • 70

    Titus Destroys Jewish Temple, Establishes Judaea

    After breaking the siege of Jerusalem, the army of Roman Emperor Titus destroys and loots the Jewish temple; Titus establishes the Roman province of Judaea.
  • 70

    Antioch: Cradle of Christianity

    Antioch becomes a major Christian center; it is here that adherents are first called Christians
  • Period: 71 to 74

    Masada: Jewish Rebels Mass Suicide to Avoid Roman Capture

    Diehard Jewish rebels, pursued by Roman leaders Bassus and Silva, took refuge in the rock fortress of Masada and committed mass suicide rather than submit to Rome.
  • 79

    Pompeii becomes Entombed by Vesuvius

    Mount Vesuvius erupts, causing the Roman city of Pompeii to become entombed
  • 80

    Rome's Iconic Colosseum is Built

    The Colosseum was built in Rome
  • Period: 98 to 117

    Trajan's Conquest

    The emperor Trajan (r.98 - 117 CE) sought to expand the empire, especially in the east, with conquests in Dacia and Nabataea (which became the province of Arabia). Trajan then restored a client king in Armenia, who had been deposed by the Parthians. In 113 CE, he sacked Ctesiphon, the capital of the Parthian Empire (territory previously ruled by the Persians and Selecids), bringing Mesopotamia under Roman control
  • 100

    Adobe Temple Rises in Moche Valley

    Moche people built the Huaca del Sol - an adobe brick temple - in the coastal desert of the Moche Valley of what is now Peru
  • 100

    Adulis: A Thriving Port City of the Ancient World

    The City of Adulis is Aksum's major trading port, with some traders travelling from distant lands, such as the Roman Empire and India, to acquire goods.
  • Period: 100 to 600

    Moche Society

    The Moche people channeled streams flowing down from the Andes into an extensive system of irrigation canals, enabling them to grow corn (maize), beans, and other crops, iconography on Moche artifacts sheds light on the society's customs and includes depictions of processions and rituals. The culture collapsed in about 600 CE, possibly at least partly due to environmental factors, such as prolonged droughts.
  • Period: 100 to 715

    Empire of Aksum

    The Aksum Empire grew into a wealthy trading power through its control of the Red Sea trading port of Adulis. The kingdom's rulers erected huge stelae in the capital (columns that probably served as burial markers). Aksum became Christian around 328 under King Ezana. From the 7th century, Aksum grew increasingly isolated as Islamic influence advanced into Egypt, and it went into decline.
  • 101

    Bamiyan Buddhas: From Monasteries to Ruins

    Buddhist monasteries are built in Bamiyan, Afghanistan; colossal Buddha statues there were blown up by the Taliban in 2001.
  • 102

    Christians of Carthage: Tertullian's Influential Voice

    There are Christians in Carthage; the city is home to the influential Latin theologian Tertullian
  • Period: 113 to 197

    The Roman-Parthian Wars

    Trajan annexed parts of the Parthian Empire in 113 CE both to defend Rome's client kingdom Armenia and to consolidate the eastern frontier. Trajan's successor Hadrian, reversed this move and set the boundary of the empire back at the Euphrates. The Parthians, however, again tried to take Armenia, prompting a Roman counter-attack in 161 CE. The Romans sacked the capital of Ctesiphon again in 197 CE.
  • Period: 113 to 217

    Silk Road Rerouted During Parthian Wars

    During the Parthian Wars, Chinese goods bound for the Roman Empire took an alternate route
  • Period: 132 to 135

    Syria Palestina

    The Bar Kokhba Revolt, 70 years after the Masada incident, was crushed even more severely. Jerusalem was destroyed and the Jewish people were banished, accelerating their dispersal both through the Roman Empire and to established centers in Mesopotamia. Judaea was renamed and merged with Roman Syria by the victorious Roman Empire Hadrian to form Syria Palestina.
  • 135

    Bar Kokhba Revolt Ends in Tragedy

    Bar Kokhba Revolt is crushed; Jerusalem is destroyed, and Jews banished.
  • 142

    Romans Push Frontier North, Then Retrench

    The Romans extended the northern frontier to the Antonine Wall, before withdrawing later back to the Hadrian's Wall
  • Period: 150 to 451

    The Coptic Church

    A fragment of St John's Gospel written in the Coptic language found in Upper Egypt shows that Christianity had arrived in the region by the mid-2nd century. Coptic theological views gradually diverged from those of other churches. This came to a head at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 CE, when the Copts split away from the other Christian churches.
  • 177

    Lyon Persecution Reveals Early Christians in Gaul

    Reports of persecution at Lugdunum (Lyon) are the first evidence of Christian beliefs in Roman Gaul
  • Period: 184 to 205

    The Yellow Turban Rebellion

    The Han resumed its military activity against the northern tribes. The cost of the war in tandem with a drought in 184 CE inflicted poverty and famine upon the realm. Large-scale peasant revolts ensued throughout eastern and central China and led to the rise of the Yellow Turbans - a rebel movement founded on a Taoist sect. The rebellion lasted 20 years and eroded Han authority.
  • 200

    Nabateans help influence the development of Arabic Writing

    Arabic script developed in the early centuries CE and may have evolved from the script of the Nabateans, who built the city of Petra in what is now Jordan.
  • 200

    Buddhism in Pagan

    The first firm evidence of Buddhism in the region is an inscription from the 3rd century CE. From the 9th to the 13 century, the kingdom of Pagan occupied territory that is known as Myanmar, or Burma. It was during this period that the country became a major center of Theravada Buddhism, and the Pagan Dynasty supported the building of thousands of temples.
  • 200

    Samoan Settlers Found Marquesas Islands

    The Marquesas Islands are settled in Samoa
  • 200

    Shifting Lifestyles in Samoa Lead to Pottery Decline

    The use of pottery in Samoa ceases
  • Period: 200 to 300

    Runes script is created in Germany and Scandinavia

    Runes - alphabetic scripts made up of straight lines - developed in northern Germany and Scandinavia.
  • Period: 200 to 1200

    The Great Voyages

    The Polynesians sailed huge distances - often against prevailing winds and currents - without navigation aids. From around 200 CE they engaged in a phase of great expansion, moving east from Samoa to the Marquesas and then settling on island groups to the north, southwest, and east. On some islands, the crops and animals they brought did not flourish, which is why there were no pigs on Easter Island or breadfruit on New Zealand.
  • 235

    Christianity Arrives in Roman Britain

    There are some Christians in Britain in the Roman period, especially from the 3rd century onwards.
  • Period: 243 to 700

    The Kingdom of Funan

    Funan, the earliest recorded state in the region of Southeast Asia, appeared around the 2nd century in the Mekong Delta. It maintained close trading links with China through an emporium at Oc Eo on the coast, sending an embassy there in 243. Although Buddhism was strong in the kingdom, Chinese records describe a king called Chan-t'an who sent tribute in 357 as a Hindu.
  • Period: 250 to 900

    The Classic Maya

    During their Classic era, the Maya built grand cities inspired by Teotihuacan. The Maya also interacted with other neighboring cultures, in particular engaging with them in a ball game that ended with ritual sacrifice, sometimes of the losing team. Many Maya temples featured panels on the platform walls bearing giant stucco masks of death.
  • Period: 250 to 1350

    The Mogollon

    Small hamlets comprising several pithouses made up the earliest Mogollon villages. Settlements were built near mountain streams or along ridges, offering defence from raiders. The Mogollon made distinctive red-on-brown ceramics with intricate designs. A subgroup of the Mogollon culture, the Mimbres, made pottery with beautiful black-on-white geometrical patterns.
  • 285

    Diocletian Divides Roman Empire

    Emperor Diocletian split the Roman Empire in two
  • Period: 300 to 600

    Church Organization

    The early church was organized in a similar way to the Roman Empire, with its leaders based in main cities. Patriarchs were the most senior bishops, followed by archbishops. Five patriarchs claimed primacy, but it was the bishopric of Rome that gradually established authority over the churches in the western empire, although it never gained authority in the east.
  • Period: 300 to 700

    Tiahuanaco

    By 500 CE, the city of Tiahuanaco had a population of about 40,000. The city center contained a complex of temples, courtyards, terraces, and statues. The site is best known for its monumental gateways, built with a single block of stone as the lintel and carved with cosmic and religious imagery. The rulers must have wielded power over a large workforce for the construction of the city's grand palaces and sophisticated rainwater drainage systems.
  • Period: 300 to 800

    El Baul: Obsidian Manufacturing Center

    El Baul is a key center for the manufacture of goods made out of volcanic glass called obsidian
  • Period: 300 to 700

    Tihuanaco Empire Spans Three Million Strong

    The City of Tiahuanaco built an extensive empire and by 700 rules over more than 3 million subjects
  • Period: 300 to 1471

    Champa and Dai Veit

    The Cham people established the Hindu kingdom of Champa in southern Vietnam in the 4th century. They waged frequent wars against their northern neighbours the Vietnamese, who overran their capital Vijaya in 1471. The Vietnamese Dai Vert kingdom developed in a region long overshadowed by China, achieving independence under Ngo Quyen in 939.
  • Period: 300 to 1500

    Easter Island

    The most easterly outpost of Polynesian settlement was Easter Island (Rapa Nui). After reaching there around 300 CE, the Polynesians built large stone platforms and then enormous cult statues (moai). Overpopulation, the effort needed to make the 'moai' and serve depletion of natural resources led to war among the islanders, toppling of the 'moai', and eventually collapse of the island's population.
  • Period: 300 to 1450

    The Hohokam

    Between 1100 and 1450, the Hohokam people built a settlement featuring a series of large mounds. The settlement was home to about 1,000 people and also had two ball-courts, similar to those of Mesoamerican cultures, from whom they imported exotic products such as copper bells and macaws.
  • Period: 301 to 484

    Armenia

    In 301, Armenia became the first country (it was outside the Roman Empire) to adopt Christianity as its state religion. In 428 CE, the Sassanid Persians took over eastern Armenia and tried to impose Zoroastrianism waged a guerrilla war against this oppression, and eventually, in 484 CE, the Persians agreed to a treaty granting them religious freedom
  • Period: 306 to 337

    Constantine

    In the early 4th century, the emperor Constantine converted to Christianity. In the Edict of Milan (313 CE) he gave the religion legal status, and in 325 he convened the Council of Nicaea, a meeting of church leaders that agreed on key theological issues, such as the divinity of Jesus and the calculation of the date of Easter. This and later councils united the Roman Empire's churches but also led to schisms that formed branches such as the Oriental Orthodox church.
  • 313

    Constantine Grants Freedom of Religion to Christians

    Emperor Constantine I legalizes Christianity
  • Period: 320 to 500

    Gupta Empire

    Founded by Chandra Gupta in 320, the Gupta Empire became wealthy from trade with Southeast Asia. Merchants carried Indian culture and religion overland and across maritime routes around Malaysia. Continual warfare to subdue rebellious provinces and defeat at the hands of Hephthalite Hun invaders in 455 hastened the empire's decline and disappearance in the mid-6th century.
  • 325

    Nicaea Rejects Arianism, Defines Christian Faith

    The Council of Nicaea repudiated Arianism, a heresy that was gaining a substantial following, and produced the Nicene Creed
  • 340

    Frumentius Converts Aksum's King to Christianity

    King Ezana of Aksum (Ethiopia) was converted to Christianity by a Syrian Christian named Frumentius, called Abba Salama in Ethiopian literature.
  • Period: 357 to 550

    Frankish Expansion

    The Frankish tribes who lived along the empire's border on the Rhine sometimes cooperated with their Roman neighbors and sometimes raided their lands. In 357, their large domain was recognized by the empire, and when Roman power collapsed in the 5th century, the Franks, united under the Merovingian dynasty, conquered most of Gaul.
  • 366

    Buddhist Pilgrims Begin to Carve Dunhuang Caves

    Buddhist pilgrims dig the first of about 1,000 caves decorating the walls with religious material in Dunhuang
  • 370

    Huns from Central Asia Emerge in the West

    The Huns make their first appearance in the West, having arrived from central Asia
  • 370

    Huns on the Move: Westward Expansion Begins

    After reaching the Volga across the steppes, the Huns start their rapid movement westwards
  • Period: 370 to 440

    The Huns

    The Huns arrived in what is now southern Russia from central Asia in the 370s. From here they moved west, conquering the territory of the Alans and overwhelming the eastern Goths. Under their powerful leader Attila they established a large eastern European empire, centered on what is now Hungary, near the borders of both the eastern and western Roman empire.
  • Period: 370 to 668

    Korea: The Unification Wars

    From the 4th century, the kingdoms of Paekche, Koguryo, Silia, and the Gaya Confederacy were fighting to gain control of Korea. Exploiting the Chinese Tang Dysnasty's rivalry with Koguryo, Silia forces enlisted the help of the Tang Army to crush Paekche, and in 668 CE, they took the Koguryo capital Pyongyang, uniting Korea under King Munmu.
  • 372

    Buddhism Arrives in Korea

    Buddhism was established in Korea when a missionary sent by the Chinese emperor Fu Jian arrived in the country.
  • 376

    Goths Cross Danube into Roman Territory

    Thousands of Goths move into Roman territory in Dacia and Lower Moesia
  • 378

    Goths, Alans Defeat Roman Army

    A force of Goths, Alans, and others defeated the army of the eastern Roman Empire.
  • Period: 378 to 418

    Visigoths

    The Visigoths (western Goths) defeated the Romans at Adrianopolis (Edirne) in 378 before moving west. Led by their king Alaric, they reached Rome in 410 and sacked the city. By 418, they had settled in southern Gaul, allowed to stay by Rome in return for service as mercenaries. This agreement did not last and the Visigoths established their own capital at Tolosa (Toulouse).
  • Period: 396 to 397

    Visigoths Ravage Athens and Corinth

    Athens and Corinth are among the cities ravaged by the Visigoths.
  • 400

    Horseshoe-Shaped Embankment Surrounds Marksville Burial Mounds

    Burial mounds built at the Marksville site are surrounded by a horseshoe-shaped earthen embankment about 910m (2,985 ft) long.
  • 400

    Fort Ancient: A 400-Year Feat of Engineering

    Fort Ancient - the largest known mound in North America - is built over 400 years
  • 400

    Acapulco: Center of Ceramic Pottery Production

    Acapulco is the key site for the production of ceramic pottery used for domestic, ceremonial, and funerary purposes
  • 400

    Irish Celts Become Scots

    As the Picts moved south, Irish Celts settled in the northern parts of the British Isles and became Scots.
  • 400

    Berber Traders Traverse the Sahara for Riches

    Berber tribes pioneered long-distance trade routes across the Sahara in search of salt, ivory, gold, exotic animals for the Roman circus, and slaves.
  • Period: 400 to 460

    Migrations to Britain

    By the early 5th century, Rome had withdrawn its troops from Britain in order to fight invaders elsewhere. In 410, Emperor Honorius instructed the cities of Britain to "look to your own defenses", marking the end of Roman rule in the province. Abandoned by Rome, Britain was invaded and settled by Picts, Irish Celts, and Angles and Saxons from northern Europe.
  • Period: 400 to 501

    Yungang Grottoes: Buddhist Masterpieces Adorn Ancient China

    Buddhist sculptures adorn the Yungang Grottes near Datong with figures of Bodhisattvas - people who have achieved enlightenment
  • 406

    The Great Migration

    In the Winter of 406, a vast group of nomadic peoples - Alans, Vandals, and Sueves - migrated westwards and crossed the Rhine into Roman territory. From here, they moved through Gaul and into the Iberian Peninsula, where the Alans and Sueves settled. The Vandals moved on further, crossing the Strait of Gibraltar into North Africa in 429.
  • 406

    Gaul Invaded by Alans, Sueves, and Vandals

    Alans, Sueves, and Vandals cross into Gaul
  • 410

    Alaric's Death Halts Visigoth African Invasion

    The Visigoth king Alaric dies; the Visigoths abandon their plan to invade Africa
  • 410

    Rome Sacks to Visigoths

    Rome is attacked and sacked by Visigoths
  • Period: 428 to 429

    Vandals Carve Out Empire in North Africa

    The Vandals crossed the Strait of Gibraltar into North Africa; the kingdom they established lasted until the 6th century.
  • 429

    Vandal Invasion of Roman North Africa Ends in Reconquest

    Roman North Africa is invaded by the Vandals; their kingdom ends with an Eastern Roman reconquest in 533
  • 430

    Hippos Falls to Vandals, St. Augustine Dies

    The Vandals take the city of Hippo; St. Augustine, church father and bishop of the city, dies during the siege
  • Period: 430 to 492

    Ireland

    St Partick, a Romano-British missionary, is said to have been the first person to bring Christianity to Ireland, probably in the early 5th century; according to tradition, he became the first bishop of Armagh. There were certainly Christians in Ireland by 430 CE because in this year the pope in Rome sent Paulinus to preach to the people there "believing in Christ".
  • Period: 440 to 453

    The Campaigns of Attila

    Led by Attila, the Huns devastated the Balkans and Thrace attacked Greece, and extracted tribute from the Eastern Roman emperor. They then invaded Gaul, where they were defeated by the Romans at the Battle of the Catalaunian Fields in 451. The Huns moved onto Italy, sacking numerous cities, before the Roman Empire sued for peace and Attila finally left Italy.
  • 441

    Germanic Settlement of Britain Begins

    Germanic peoples from northern Europe began to settle in Britain.
  • 441

    Srivijaya’s First Mention in Chinese Records

    Tribute from the port of Kan-t'L'li is the first mention of Srivijaya in Chinese records
  • 450

    Britons Seek Roman Aid Against Saxon Invasion

    Leaders of Britons appeal to Roman general Aetius to send help against Saxon invaders
  • Period: 450 to 1000

    Huari Empire

    The Huari culture flourished from about 600 CE. It was among the first politically centralized civilizations in the New World that expanded as a result of its economic and military might. The empire constructed a major road network, which allowed its rulers to govern the realm from the capital Huari.
  • 452

    Huns Sack Aquileia, Paving Way for Attila's Invasion of Italy

    The Huns sack Aquileia, opening a way into northern Italy for Attila
  • 453

    Attila's Death Leads to Hunnic Collapse

    Attila dies and the Huns' empire disintegrates
  • Period: 453 to 493

    Ostrogoths

    The Ostrogoths (eastern Goths) were one of the peoples subjected by the Huns in the 4th century. They settled in the Roman province of Pannonia, after the death of Attila in 453, moved westwards, and then to northern Italy. From there, under their great leader Theoderic, they extended their power across Italy in the 480s and 490s.
  • 456

    Visigoths Expand Kingdom to Iberia

    The Visigoths began to expand their kingdom in southern Gaul. They conquered most of Iberia in c.500
  • 456

    Visigoths Conquer Spain

    Visigoths under Theoderic II control Spain apart from the Suevic kingdom
  • 457

    Britons Flee Kent After Saxon Victory

    Britons flee Kent after an Anglo-Saxon victory at Aylesford
  • 457

    St Patrick Establishes Main Church at Armagh

    According to tradition, St Patrick found his main church at Armagh
  • 476

    Rome Falls

    The Western Roman Empire falls
  • 476

    Odovacer Deposes Romulus Augustus, Ending Western Roman Empire

    The last Western Roman emperor, Romulus Augustuslus is deposed by his army chief, Odovacer
  • 490

    Chaco Canyon's Transformation from Farming Settlements to Cultural Hub

    Farming settlements started evolving as a result of increased rainfall, and grow into a large cultural complex comprising of 2,000 sites and 14 towns.
  • Period: 492 to 493

    Ostrogoths Besiege Rome

    Ostrogoths under Theoderic besige Ravenna, the western Roman capital
  • 500

    The Great Serpent Mound: An Enigmatic Earthwork

    Measuring 380m (1245 ft), the Great Serpent Mound is built in the shape of a snake with its jaws clamped around the mount
  • Period: 500 to 900

    Zapotec Culture

    The Zapotecs emerged in the valleys in and around Oaxaca. They constructed an impressive cultural hub in Monte Alban, which featured grand terraces, plazas, and a ceremonial platform shaped like the base of a pyramid located centrally on a hilltop. By 700 CE, Monte Alban had grown into a city-state of about 25,000 people and interacted with other Mesoamerican regional states.
  • Period: 500 to 1200

    Ancient Ghana

    Ghana had become an important kingdom by about 800 CE, dominating the area around the upper Niger and Senegal River. The kingdom's control of the local gold and iron resources enabled it to establish lucrative trade relations with North Africa. However, the Almoravids of Morocco invaded the kingdom in 1060, leading to its demise in 1200.
  • Period: 500 to 1500

    Nubia

    The ancient Nubian empire fell under Christian influence in the 540s with the arrival of Byzantine missionaries. Three Christian kingdoms emerged as a result: Nobatia, Makuria, and Alwa. Bedouin Arabs, however, pushed south, eventually destroying the Nubian kingdom and spreading Islam.
  • Period: 500 to 1100

    Snaketown: The Hohokam Cultural Center

    Built-in seven phases, Snaketown becomes the centre of the Hohokam culture
  • Period: 500 to 1100

    Ancient Trade Network Links Southwestern and Mesoamerican Cultures

    Southwestern cultures trade extensively with Mesoamerican cities and trade centres
  • 506

    Visigothic King Issues Roman Law Code

    Visigothic king Alaric II issued the 'Breviarium', a Roman-style law code.
  • Period: 507 to 711

    Arab Conquest of Toledo Ends Visigothic Era

    Toledo was the Visigothic capital until the Arab conquest of the region
  • Period: 511 to 561

    Frankish Kingdom Divided and Weakened

    Frankish kingdom divided into four after the death of Clovis, partitioned again in 561, weakening the rule of the Franks
  • Period: 527 to 565

    Justinian's Reconquests

    In 533, under Justinian, the Byzantine Empire launched an invasion of North Africa and conquered it from the Vandals. In 535, Justinian sent an army to fight the Ostrogoths in Italy, seeking the reconquest of the old imperial capital, Rome. The war lasted 18 years, and Byzantine victory eventually came at a huge financial cost. Rome, however, was relinquished to the Lombards two centuries later.
  • 533

    Byzantine Victory at Ad Decimum Crushes Vandal Kingdom

    Battle of Ad Decimum, Byzantine victory in Carthage leads to the collapse of the Vandal kingdom
  • Period: 533 to 535

    Justinian's Reconquest

    Byzantine emperor Justian launched a war to conquer North Africa and Italy from Germanic kings
  • 534

    Balisarius Invades Sicily

    Eastern Roman general Balisarius invades Sicily, beginning the reconquest of Italy
  • 550

    Dawn of Buddhism in Japan

    Buddhism introduced to Japan
  • 550

    Northern India Fractures After Gupta Empire's Decline

    The Gupta Empire declines, and northern India disintegrates into several smaller states.
  • 568

    Lombards Invade Italy

    Lombard invasion of Italy begins
  • 575

    Mesa Verde: A Thriving Ancient Puebloan Settlement

    Ancient Puebloans first settled in Mesa Verde. By 1100, the population grows to about 2,500
  • 589

    Sui Reunifies China by Capturing Nanjing

    Sui forces capture Nanjing to complete the reunification of China
  • Period: 590 to 628

    The Unification of China

    After the fall of the Han, China broke apart as a series of dynasties, many originating in normadic groups from the north. Unity was briefly restored in 590 when the Sui dynasty took control, but their expensive wars against Korea and the Turks led to the dynasty's collapse in 618. After a period of chaos, the young general Li Shimin restored order and placed his father on the throne as Gaozu, the first Tang emperor. By 628, China was united once more.
  • 597

    Augustine Lands in Canterbury, Bringing Christianity to England

    Sent by Pope Gregory I to convert the English, Augustine arrived in Canterbury
  • 600

    Teotihuacan: Largest City in Mesoamerica

    Teotihuacan becomes the largest city in Mesoamerica
  • 600

    El Castillo: Mayan Masterpiece of Chichen Itza

    The Maya built a giant step pyramid at Chichen Itza, known as El Castillo, or Temple of Kukulcan, which forms the centerpiece of the ancient city
  • 600

    Ellora Caves: Buddhist Marvels Under Construction

    The monastery temple caves at Ellora are begun; they are among the most spectacular Buddhist monuments in the world.
  • 600

    Ctesiphon: A Global Metropolis in the Early 7th Century

    Ctesiphon grew into a rich commercial metropolis and became one of the worlds largest cities in the early 7th century.
  • 600

    Tibet Unites and Expands

    Tibet is unified and begins rapid expansion
  • Period: 600 to 1200

    Nomadic Raids

    In the 10th century, semi-nomadic peoples. such as the Slavs, Avars, and Bulgars, invaded the Balkans - the region between the Greek Peloponnese and the Danube River. In 1014, the Byzantine emperor Basil II (r.976 - 1027) destroyed the Bulgarian kingdom and annexed the territory - a feat for which he earned the nickname "Bulgar-slayer". However, revolts against Byzantine rule in 1185 led to a loss of the Balkans and undermined the Byzantine empire.
  • Period: 600 to 800

    Pachacamac: Huari Empire Hub

    The City of Pachacamac is thought to have served as a key administrative center for the Huari Empire
  • Period: 600 to 800

    First Scripts in Japan

    Japanese scholars create scripts based on both classical and adapted Chinese characters.
  • Period: 600 to 700

    The Settlement of Tahiti

    The Polynesians reached Tahiti in around 600 CE. The society that they founded there became layered, with classes of chiefs (ari'i), lesser chiefs and landowners (ra'atira), and commoners (manahune) that did not intermarry. They built great stone cult platforms (marae) for the worship of their gods and developed new technologies, such as fishing gear and adzes with tangs to make attaching hafts easier.
  • Period: 600 to 1400

    Middle Mississippian

    From 600 CE, people in the Midwest started shifting to farming maize, beans, and squash. By 1000 they had organized a complex settlement-based society, typically featuring large ceremonial mounds encircled by ditches and ramparts. The largest was based in Cahokia, where about 100 earth mounds were grouped around open plazas.
  • 606

    Gupta Empire Collapses

    India's Gupta Empire finally collapses
  • 610

    Muhammad Receives Revelations in Mecca

    Muhhamad receives revelations from the archangel Gabriel in a cave in the hills outside Mecca
  • Period: 610 to 641

    Defending Against Persia

    Byzantine emperor Heraclius (r.610 - 641) came to power in the midst of an invasion of the empire by the Sassanid Persians. The Sassanids had already seized control of Egypt and the Levant and attempted a siege of Constantinople. In 627, Heraclius launched a counter-attack into the Persian capital, eventually forcing a peace deal that subdued the Sassanid threat.
  • Period: 610 to 632

    Muhammad, the Hegira, and the Conquest of Arabia

    Many of Muhammad's clan, the Quraysh, saw his rejection of the traditional Arab worship of many gods as a threat to their authority. In 622, he had to flee to Medina - an exodus known as the Hegira, which marks the traditional beginning of the Muslim era. A military as well as a religious leader. Muhammad made alliances and raised an army that took Mecca in 630. By the time of his death in 632 CE, he had conquered most of Arabia.
  • 618

    Tang Dynasty Reunites China

    The Tang Dynasty reunified China after four centuries of disunity
  • Period: 618 to 907

    Trade under the Tang

    The Silk Road became active again in 639, when the Chinese Tang Dynasty (618 - 907) regained control of the route with the reconquest of Xinjiang, Trade thrived again until the outbreak of the An Lushan Rebellion in northern China in 755. The Teng era also saw the number of Chinese goods increase dramatically in the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, with Arab traders establishing an extensive trade network from the Middle East and Africa's east coast to Chinese ports.
  • 622

    Islamic Era Begins with the Hijrah

    The Hegria - the flight of the Prophet Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Medina - started the Islamic era
  • 622

    Muhammad and Followers Flee Yathrib

    Muhammad and his principal followers are forced to flee the oasis town of Yathrib (later known as Medina)
  • 627

    Byzantine Troops Enter Persian Capital

    Byzantine troops marched into the Persian capital to counter the Sassanid invasion.
  • Period: 629 to 1180

    Islamic Invasion

    Under the leadership of the first caliphs, Arab Muslim armies invaded both Sassanid Persia and the Byzantine Empire. At the Battle of Yarmuk in 636, the Byzantine army suffered a huge loss. In the aftermath, first Syria and Palestine and then Egypt were conquered by Arab armies and fell under the influence of Islam. Under the rule of the Macedonian Dynasty (867 - 1056), the Byzantine Empire managed to recapture territories lost to Muslim conquests in the 7th century.
  • Period: 629 to 751

    The Central Asian Empire

    Turkic invasions threatened China in the first years of the Tang, but in 629, Emperor Taizong defeated the Eastern Tuks. He later sent armies into central Asia, establishing protectorates in the western regions as far as Kashgar. The Tang lost some territory in the 680s, and their expansion westwards was halted when a Tang army was defeated by the Arabs at the Talas River in 751.
  • 630

    Muhammad conquers Mecca, uniting Arabia under Islam

    Muhammad conquers Mecca
  • 630

    Taizong Defeats Eastern Turks, Expands Chinese Power

    Tang emperor Taizong defeats the eastern Turks, extending Chinese power into central Asia
  • 633

    Penda of Mercia Defeats Edwin, Begins Mercian Supremacy

    Penda of Mercia defeats Dand and kills King Edwin of Northumbria to begin a 160-year Mercian supremacy among the English kingdoms
  • Period: 634 to 644

    Umar and the Conquest of Syria and Egypt

    Under the second caliph, Umar (who had been a companion of Muhammad), Mulsim armies achieved astonishing successes against the Byzantine army, which had been weakened by its long war with Persia. First Damascus, the chief of Syria, fell to the Muslims, and then they seized Jerusalem. They went on to subdue the Byzantine province of Egypt, where religious divisions among the Christian population undermined opposition to the Muslims.
  • 636

    Yarmuk: Turning Point in History

    Battle of Yarmuk
  • 636

    Khalid ibn al-Walid Shatters Byzantine Forces at Yarmuk

    At Yarmuk, Khalid ibn al-Walid destroys the main Byzantine field army, leaving the rest of Syria and Palestine open to Muslim conquest
  • 636

    Muslims Defeat Persians, Conquer Mesopotamia

    Muslim victory against the Persians led to the conquest of Mesopotamia
  • Period: 636 to 656

    The Conquest of Persia and Khurasan

    The Sassanian rulers of Persia had almost captured the Byzantine capital of Constantinople by 626, but the effort exhausted their resources. After a Muslim army defeated them in Mesopotamia in 636, the Persians lost their western provinces. The Persian shah Yazdegerd III became a fugitive, and his domains were absorbed into the growing Islamic empire. Within 5 years, much of Khurasan (Khorasan), in central Asia, had been added to the empire, too.
  • 642

    Muhammad's First Victory Leads to Arab Unification

    The Muslim army defeated Meccan forces, beginning the process by which Muhammad conquered the whole of Arabia
  • 642

    Alexandria Falls to Amr ibn al-As

    Amr ibn al-As captures Alexandria, the last Byzantine stronghold in Egypt
  • 642

    Yazdegerd III's Defeat at Nahavend Opens Floodgates for Muslim Conquest

    Yazdegerd III is defeated at Nahavend, leading to the rapid Muslim conquest of the rest of Persia
  • Period: 645 to 769

    Dzungaria Under Tang Control

    Dzungaria occupied by Tang China
  • 657

    Tang Defeats Western Turks, Controls Area Until 665 Rebellion

    The Tang defeat the Western Turks and control the area until a rebelilion in 665
  • Period: 660 to 668

    Tang Conquers Silla, but Withdrawal Follows

    A major Tang invasion conquers most of the Korean kingdom of Sila, but the Chinese are forced to withdrawin 676.
  • 661

    Ali's Assassination Leads to Sunni-Shia Split; Muawiya Founds Umayyad Caliphate

    Ali is assassinated while at prayer, leading to a schism between Sunni and Shia Muslims; Muawiya becomes the first Uma\ayyad capital ruling Damascus
  • 663

    Tang and Silla Crush Paekche at Baekgang

    Tang and Silia army crushes the Paekche with a victory in Baekgang.
  • 664

    Synod of Whitby Unites Celtic and Roman Christians

    Dispute between Celtic Christians in Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and those from Rome settled by Synod of Whitby
  • 668

    Silia Conquers Goryeo, Completing Korean Unification

    Silia forces defeat Goryeo to complete the unification of Korea
  • 668

    Koguryo Rulers Flee Pyongyang

    Tang and Silia siege of Pyongyang forced Koguryo rulers to abandon the city.
  • Period: 670 to 750

    Late Umayyad Conquests

    The Muslims expanded west of Egypt, building a base in Kairouan in 670. They captured the Byzantine Empire in North Africa and Carthage in 698. In 711, Arab-Berber forces conquered most of Spain. Muslim armies won Transoxiana in central Asia. In 750, the Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasid dynasty, taking control of the caliphate.
  • 671

    Buddhist Monks in Palembang: A Visitor's Account

    Visiting Chinese pilgrim records the presence of 1,000 Buddhist monks just outside of Palembang
  • Period: 671 to 1045

    The Maritime State of Srivijaya

    Unlike the land-based states, Srivijaya depended on control of maritime routes and domination of trading ports and cities for its success. Based at Palembang on Sumatra, Srivijaya had close links with China and sent frequent embassies there. The appearance in the 11th century of rivals in Java, notably Kadiri, ended Srivijaya's empire.
  • 679

    Tang Establishes Annan Protectorate

    Tang protectorate of Annam established
  • 697

    First Doge of Venice Elected

    First Venetian Doge (Duke) elected
  • 698

    Carthage Falls to Muslims

    Muslim armies capture Carthage
  • 698

    Carthage Falls to Muslim Arabs

    Muslim Arab army captures Carthage
  • 700

    Nanzhou Flourishes in Unified Period

    Nanzhou in unified and begins expansion.
  • 700

    Chenla Assumes Power After Funan's Fall

    The Kingdom of Chenla became predominant following the collapse of Funan
  • Period: 700 to 1500

    Chaco Canyon

    The people of the southwest began to build complexes of houses built into rock-faces. The Ancient Puebloans constructed towns, notably at Chaco Canyon, with an extensive road network connecting them. They managed water resources carefully, but around 1130, overpopulation (aggravated by droughts) strained the area's resources and the Chaco culture collapsed.
  • 701

    Taiho Code Standardizes Japan

    Taiho code divides Japan into provinces, districs, and villages and decrees a six-yearly census
  • Period: 701 to 801

    Tang Empire Gains New Tributary in Bohol

    The Kingdom of Bohol is a tributary to the Tang Empire
  • Period: 708 to 712

    Nara Rises as Japan's Capital

    A new Japanese capital is built at Nara
  • Period: 710 to 794

    Japan: Nara Period

    In the early 8th century, Japan adopted a Confucian bureaucracy based on the Chinese model, which included a centralized revenue-collection system. Under Empress Genmei (r.707 - 715), a new capital was built in Nara, replicating Chang'an - the Chinese Tang capital. Besides Chinese influence, Buddhism also shaped Japanese culture during the Nara era.
  • 711

    Muslim Conquest of Spain Ends Visigothic Rule

    The Visigothic kingdom of Spain is overthrown by a Muslim army invading from North Africa
  • 711

    Berber General Leads Muslim Conquest of Spain

    Berber general Tariq leads troops into Spain and conquers the Visigothic kingdom
  • 711

    North Africa's Muslim Army Conquers Visigothic Spain

    Arab Muslim army crosses from North Africa and conquers the Visigothic Kingdom
  • Period: 711 to 900

    The Origins of the Reconquista

    In 711, an Arab-Berber army led by Tariq ibn Ziyad was sent by the Umayyad caliph into Spain, where it defeated Roderick, the Visigoth king. Within 5 years Muslim forces had conquered all but the northern fringes of Spain. Their advance was halted in around 718, when Asturian chieftain Playo, defeated a Muslim army at Covadonga. Gradually, the Asturian kingdom consolidated as the nucleus of Christian resistance.
  • Period: 713 to 803

    Leshan Giant Buddha: A Colossus near Chengdu

    The Leshan Giant Buddha, at 71 m (233 ft) in height, is built near the city of Chengdu
  • 718

    Pelayo Defeats Muslims, Establishes Asturian Kingdom

    Asturian chieftain Pelayo defeats Muslim general al-Qama and establishes an independent kingdom
  • 732

    Charles Martel Stops the Arab Invasion

    The Frankish army under Charles Martel halts the Arab advance
  • 750

    Abbasid Caliphate Begins in Baghdad

    The Abbasids started a new caliphate in Baghdad
  • 750

    Vikings Settle Beyond Scandinavia

    The first Viking settlement outside Scandinavia, Staraya Ladoga, was founded
  • 750

    Tibet Expands Again After Losing Territory to China

    The Tibetians loose much of their territory to China, only to reagin it and expand again in from the 780s.
  • Period: 750 to 1258

    The Abbasids

    The Abbasids came to power after a civil war that engulfed the last of the Umayyads. Al-Mansur, the second Abbasid, established the new city of Baghdad (designed in circular form), which became a cultural and mercantile center. By the 10th century, Abbasid power had declined, and they were reduced to seeking the protection of other groups, such as the Buwayhids and Hamdanids, to ensure their survival. The last caliph, al-Musta'sim, was killed when the Mongols sacked Baghdad in 1258.
  • Period: 750 to 988

    The Swedes and Kievan Rus'

    Swedish Vikings pushed east, raiding and settling in lands now called Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine. Sometimes known as Varangians, this people's other name, Rus, gave Russia its modern name. The Rus founded the first state in Russia - a confederation of Slavic peoples named Kievan Rus' after one of the cities they established - Kiev.
  • 751

    Abbasids Defeat Tang at Talas River, Seize Central Asia

    The Abbasid caliphate (succeeding the Ummayads) defeated the Tang Chinese at the Talas River; consolidating their hold on Trasoxiana for the next 400 years
  • 751

    Arab Victory at Talas River Halts Tang Expansion

    Tang forces suffer defeat at the hands of an Abbasid Arab army at Talas River, which ends their westward expansion
  • 751

    Tang-Arab Battle at Talas River

    Tang forces are defeated by Arabs at the Talas River
  • Period: 755 to 763

    The An-Lushan Revolt

    Discontent grewin the Chinese army following a series of military faolures in central Asia. In 755, a revoke broke out under Al Lushan, a general who captured the imperial (or western) capital of Chang'an in 756. Although he was assissinated the following year, it took until 763 to defeat the last rebel army, by which time Tang control over the provinces had been seriously weakened.
  • 756

    Abd al-Rahman Founds Emirate in Spain, Claims Caliphate

    The Umayyad prince Abd al-Rahman escaped to Spain where he found a new emirate which claimed caliphate status in 929
  • Period: 763 to 907

    The Tang Collapse

    After the An Lushan rebelion, the military governors gained more power, despite efforts by the Emperor Xianzong (r.805 - 820) to stabilize finances and subdue rebelion. Thereafter court eunuchs - castrated men who were employed as imperial servants - gained dominance over the bureacracy and army, and factional striffe crippled the government. In 907, Zhu Wen, a military governor, desposed the last Tang emperor, Al Wen, and established the later Liang dysnasty
  • 774

    Lombard Kingdom Falls to Charlemagne

    Lombard kingdom comes to an end after invasion by Frankish-Carolingian ruler Charlemagne
  • 793

    Lindisfarne Raided by Vikings in First Overseas Raid

    Vikings make their first overseas raid, on the rich monastery on Lindisfarne Island in the kingdom of Northumberland
  • Period: 793 to 1103

    The British Isles

    The first Viking raids on Britain were in the 790s. The early targets were unarmed monasteries, which the Vikings knew would be full of treasure. The raids became larger in scale, and in 865, the arrival of the Danish "Great Heathen Army" led to the conquest of most of the Angle-Saxon kingdoms in England.
  • Period: 794 to 1189

    Japan: Heian Period

    Emperor Kanmu (r.781 - 806) moved the Japanese capital to Heian-Kyo (modern-day Kyoto) in 794 CE, marking the start of the Heian era, which saw the noble Fujiwara family rise to power. The family presided over a period of great artistic and literary achievement, during which Japan broke away from Chinese influences and established its own culture.
  • Period: 799 to 1066

    Vikings become Normans

    The first Vikings raids in France were in 799 against a monastery on the northwest coast. At first, the strong rule of the Frankish king Charlemagne held the Vikings at bay, but when he died in 814, the raids increased. In 911 a Viking warlord, Rollo, agreed to stop raids in return for a grant of land in Normandy. The settlers became French-speaking Normans, losing their Viking identity. Normans would go on to conquer England and Sicily.
  • 800

    Charlemagne Crowned Emperor

    The Frankish ruler Charlemagne is crowned emperor
  • 800

    Leo III Crowns Charlemagne

    Charlemagne is crowned by the Pope Leo III
  • Period: 800 to 814

    Charlemagne's Renaissance

    The crowning of Charlemagne as "Emperor of the Romans" in 800 brought about a sense that the Roman Empire had been revealed in Western Europe. Literature, arts, writing, architecture, and scriptural studies flourished under his rule. The cultural gains of Charlemagne's court dissipated soon after his death in 814 and the passage of the imperial title to a new series of German nobles.
  • Period: 800 to 1300

    Kanem-Bornu

    The kingdom of Kanem was founded around 900 by Kanuri-speaking nomads. Under Humai ibn Salamna (1068 - 1080) they settled down and became Mulsim. Kanem's power declined in the 12th and 13th centuries, and around 1400 it was forced to move its main centre to Bornu by the Bulala people.
  • 801

    Barcelona Captured, Frankish Rule Restored

    Barcelona is captured by Frankish forces, marking the re-establishment of Christian rule in northeastern Spain
  • Period: 802 to 1431

    The Rise and Fall of Angkor

    The Kingdom of Angkor began in 802 when Jayavarman II proclaimed himself 'cakravartin' and founded a new capital near the later site of Angkor. Subsequent kings established new royal cities nearby, each adorned with Hindu temples. Jayavarman VII (r.1181 - 1218) instead promoted Buddhims, but Angkor returned to Hinduism and survived until its collapse in the 15th century.
  • Period: 819 to 999

    The Samanids

    The Samanids, former Abbasid governors in eastern Iran, asserted their independence and captured Bukhara in 900. Their empire prospered economically and culturally, producing fine pottery and the Persian national epic Shanameh. However, pressure on their eastern borders led to their downfall when the Turkic Qarakhanids took Bukhara in 999.
  • Period: 825 to 1408

    The North Atlantic

    The Vikings were explorers, crossing oceans in search of lands to settle. From the north coast of Scotland, it was a short hop to the Faroes, which were settled around 800. Viking ships ranged westward, sighting Iceland in the 830s and settling in the 870s. There, they established a republic, with the world's oldest parliament, the Althing - independent until the 1240s.
  • 830

    Tang Shipwreck Discovered with 60,000 Ceramics

    An Arabian dhow carrying 60,000 Tang ceramic pieces bound for the Middle East capsizes. The wreck was discovered in 1998
  • 845

    Vikings Sack Paris, Demand Tribute

    Vikings sack Paris and exact tributes from the Franks
  • Period: 849 to 1287

    The Buddhist Kingdom of Pagan

    Pagan was established in 849 by Burmese-speaking people. Its power grew until in 1044 Anawrahta brought much of modern Burma under his control, finally defeating the Mon of Thaton in 1057. His descendants ruled for two centuries, but alienation of land to support ints temples weakened Pagan and it fell easily to the Mongols in 1287.
  • Period: 850 to 1500

    The Venetian Empire

    Venice first became a trading power in the mid 9th century and soo afterwards established bases on the Adriatic. By the 14th century, the Venetians had surpassed their longtime rivals in Genoa and gained land in the Aegean from the Byzantine Empire. But rivalry from the Spainish, Dutch, and Portuguese merchants helped to cause the collapse of their empire by the 16th century.
  • 857

    Vikings Align with Franks in Southwest France

    Vikings pushed into southwest France and allied with Frankish ruler of Aquitaine, Pippin II
  • Period: 860 to 902

    Viking Port of Dublin Occupied

    Vikings occupy the fortified port they built in Dublin
  • 862

    Novgorodians Invite Swedish Ruler to Rule Them

    The people of Novgorod invited the Swedish ruler Rurik to rule them
  • 862

    Novgorod Founded by Viking Chieftain Rurik

    Rurik the Viking found the city of Novgorod meaning "new town".
  • Period: 866 to 954

    Jorvik: Viking Hub of Northern England

    Jorvik (York) is the capital of the Danelaw - a Viking kingdom in northern England
  • 868

    Ibn Tulun Establishes Tulunid Dynasty in Egypt

    The former Abbasid governor, Ahmed ibn Tulun, gains control in Egypt and founds the Tulunid dynasty
  • 869

    Tikal's Final Inscription Marks the End of an Era

    The last dated inscription made at the Maya city-state of Tikal, which disappears shortly after
  • 870

    Guangzhou's Global Community

    As a result of extensive international trade, up to 200,000 foreign residents are based in Guangzhou, including Arabs, Persians, Indians, Africans, and Turks.
  • 875

    Norwegian Vikings Conquer Orkneys, Ceded to Scotland in 1468

    Norweigan Vikings took control of the northern British islands and established the Earldom of Orkney; it is ceded to Scotland in 1468
  • Period: 889 to 935

    The Rise of Goryeo

    After two centuries of Silia rule, rebellions led by provincial warlords caused the Korean peninsula to divide the three parts (Later Three Kingdoms). In this new era, the reformed Koguryo state, Goryeo (which has given its name to modern Korea), possessed the strongest military. In 935, Goryeo commander Wang Geon captured Kyongju, the Silia capital, and reunited the peninsula.
  • Period: 900 to 1192

    Rise of the Samurai

    From the early 900s, weak Heian rule caused disaffection to spread across the provinces. Nobles began hiring warriors to safeguard their interests - warriors that formed a caste that came to be known as samurai. By the 1100s, provincial lords were fighting for supremacy, culminating in the Genpei War (1156 - 1185), in which the Minamoto clan defeated the Taira clan and seized power.
  • Period: 900 to 955

    Construction Begins on a Pre-Columbian Monument

    Construction begins on Monks Mound, the largest pre-Columbian earthwork
  • Period: 900 to 1524

    The Post-Classic Maya

    A new phase of Maya culture was involved in the Yucatan peninsula following the arrival of the Toltecs from central Mexico. They first went to Chichen Itza and then established a new capital at Mayapan. Post-classic Maya society was more secular and industrious. Wafefare was also a prevalent feature of this period.
  • 901

    Salerno: Gateway to Arabic Medicine

    The medical school at Salerno acts as a conduit for Arabic medical works
  • 907

    Vikings Trade Furs for Byzantine Gold

    Viking-Byzantine trade treaty helped Vikings to exchange furs - acquired as tribute from the Slavic peoples of the Kievan Rus' - for gold in the markets of Constantinople
  • Period: 909 to 1171

    The Fatimids

    The Fatimids, a Shia dynasty, claimed descent from Fatima, daughter of Muhammad. Established in Tunisia in 909, they claimed the title of caliph in 910, competing with the Abbasids for Islamic leadership. After conquering Egypt and expanding to Syria, they were defeated by the Selijuks and reduced to puppet rulers controlled by military commanders.
  • 911

    Charles the Simple Grants Normandy to Vikings

    Frankish king Charles the Simple grants lands in Normandy to the Vikings
  • Period: 919 to 1024

    The Ottonian Empire

    Duke Otto of Saxony was chosen by the Pope as emperor in 962, in return for protection from another marauding king, Otto's son, Otto II (r.967 - 983), married a Byzantine princess, and officially adopted the title 'imperator Romanorum' ("Emperor of the Romans"). Otto II's efforts at extending imperial power brought him up against the Byzantine Empire and the Fatmid Caliphate, both of which held territory in southern Italy.
  • Period: 926 to 1055

    The Buwayhids

    The Buwayhids (or Buyid) dynasty originated among the Daylamites, a group of recent converts to Islam in northern Iran. They took advantage of the withdrawal of Abbasid troops in 926 to expand and build power in Iran, expanding north and west, and taking Baghdad in 945. They made Baghdad their capital and reduced the resident Abbasid caliphs to puppet rulers. By the late 10th century, Buwayhid power had faded, and their last ruler was disposed of by the Selijuks in 1055.
  • 935

    Wang Kon Reunites Korea

    Wang Kon reuintes Korea under the the Goryeo dynasty after a 30-year period of division following the collapse of Silia
  • Period: 935 to 1392

    Goryeo Korea

    The demand for luxury goods increased and the local handicraft industries grew during the Goryeo era. The capital Gaeyeong grew into a major trade hub, with overseas links to the rest of East Asia. Geryeo also adopted the Seon branch of Buddhism, which is proclaimed the "religion of the state". In 1270, Goryeo's rule fell to a Mongol invasion and the Peninsula became a vassal state of the Yuan Empire.
  • 938

    Ngo Quyen's Victory Preserves Dai Viet Independence

    Vietnamese under Ngo Quyen defeat Southern Han to preserve the independence of Dai Viet
  • 950

    Vikings Reach Azerbaijan in Raids Down Volga River

    Viking raids extend down river Volga, eventually reaching Arab-ruled Azerbaijan
  • Period: 950 to 1409

    The Genoese Empire

    The port of Genoa began its rise to prominence as a maritime power arounnd 950 and became the center of a trade network that encompassed North Africa and the western Mediterranean. Defeated by Venice in the War of Chioggia dented Genoese aspirations and in the early 15th century the city fell under the sway of the Visconti of Milan
  • 960

    Zhao Kuangyin: From Guard to Emperor

    Former palace guard commander Zhao Kuangyin becomes Taizu, the first Song emperor, restoring Chinese unity
  • Period: 960 to 1126

    The Northern Song Dynasy

    From 960, Emperor Taizu conquered and reunited much of the land tht had once belonged to the Han and Tang empires. He imposed high taxes on peasantry, and while Jurchen nomads invaded the north they faced little resistance. In 1126, the Jurchen took the Song capital, Kaifeng, and the Song court fled to southern China.
  • 962

    Holy Roman Empire Begins with Otto I

    Coronation of Otto I as emperor marks real begining of the Holy Roman Empire
  • 969

    Shia Fatimids Conquer Cairo

    The Shia Fatimids captured Cairo and established a new caliphate
  • Period: 977 to 1186

    The Ghaznavids

    The Ghaznavids, a dynasty of Turik origin, established themselves in Ghazni, in Khorasan, from 977, and gradually expanded until they took over the western portion of the former Samanid empire by 1005. They then conquered the eastern portion of the Buwayhid empire before a disastrous defeat by the Selijuks at Dandanaqan in 1040 reduced them to a small area of eastern Khorasan, where they ruled until 1186.
  • 988

    Prince Vladimir Converts to Christianity

    Prince Vladamir of Kyiv converts to Christianity
  • Period: 988 to 1050

    Varangian Guard

    The Rus founded small principalities and began to raid further afield, attacking Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, several times. In 988 Vladimir, the prince of Kiev, became a Christian, and relations with Byzantium improved; he even provided a contingent, known as the Varangians, to become the Byzantine emperor's bodyguard - employed in recognition of their fighting qualities. By the mid-11th century, the Viking raids in the area had ceased.
  • 989

    Sankore Mosque: A Center of Learning in Timbuktu

    Sankore Mosque was founded in Timbuktu; and became the heart of the city's university, a centre of education and learning.
  • 1000

    Ancient South American City Mysteriously Abandoned

    The City of Tiwanaka, which ruled over a large empire in South America, is abandoned
  • 1000

    Native Americans Force Norse to Evacuate L'Anse aux Meadows

    L'Anse aux Meadows is an archaeological site showing a Norse settlement evacuated after 20 - 30 years under pressure from Native Americans
  • 1000

    Viking Sagas Reveal Markland's Location

    Viking sagas speak of Markland - probably the Labrador coast of Canada
  • 1000

    Greenlandic Sagas Lead to Discovery of Helluland

    Helluland, the site of seal hunts in Greenlandic sagas, may have been Ellesmere Island
  • 1000

    Kilwa: A Thriving Muslim Trade Hub

    Maritime Kilwa is a centre for Muslim traders
  • 1000

    Kupe's Voyage from Hawaiki

    Kupe arrives from Hawaiki (the legendary Polynesian homeland)
  • Period: 1000 to 1400

    Voyages to Vinland

    Greenland was colonized from Iceland in 986 by Erik the Red, a fugitive fleeing a sentence of outlawry. It was a marginal land, where a few thousand Vikings lived by hunting seals and walruses and raising cattle, but it was the base for exploring North America, in search of timber, which was in short supply in Greenland. They named the most distant land they reached "Vinland".
  • Period: 1000 to 1400

    Greenland Vikings Voyage for Timber

    Greenland Vikings make voyages to collect timber from a place they call Vinland - somewhere south of Markland
  • Period: 1000 to 1240

    Slavery in the Ghanian Empire: The Case of Taghaza

    The rulers of the Ghanian Empire use slaves to mine salt in the city of Taghaza
  • Period: 1000 to 1550

    Etowah Becomes the Cultural Center of the South Appalachian People

    The cultural centre of the South Appalachian people, where its elites are buried along with ornamental copper plates.
  • Period: 1000 to

    Late Mississippian Mound Cultures

    After 1000 CE, maize cultivation spread widely throughout the East, giving rise to a variety of temple mounds subcultures. It is thought that the subgroups were organized as chiefdoms composed of people with either "elite" or "commoner" social ranking. The Mississippians did not have writing, but representations of their beliefs were preserved in engravings on stone figurines, shells, ceramic designs, effigy smoking pipes, and stone tablets.
  • Period: 1000 to 1500

    Moundville: A Monumental Mississippian Settlement

    Moundville is among the largest Mississippian settlements, featuring 20 large platform mounds and covering an area of about 300 acres.
  • Period: 1000 to

    Polynesian Settlement

    The date of Polynesian discovery and settlement of New Zealand is contested, although the Maori people themselves speak of the legendary Kupe first visiting the islands around 1000 CE, with colonists following before 1300. Maori settlement was initially coastal, spreading inland in 1400 - 1500.
  • 1014

    Basil II Conquers Bulgaria

    Basil II defeated the Bulgars and annexed the Bulgarian Kingdom
  • Period: 1030 to 1080

    Christian Adavances

    By the early 11th century, the ruling Umayyad caliphate had broken down into dozens of small emirates (or taifas). The taifas were less able to resist Christian advances, particulary those of the kingdoms of Leon and Castile in the wets and Aragon in the east. Many taifas were forced to pay tribute to the Christian kingdoms.
  • Period: 1044 to 1077

    Anawrahta Unites Burma

    Anawrahta unites Burma under the rule of Pagan
  • Period: 1048 to 1071

    Byzantine-Seljuk Wars

    The Seljuk Turks, a group of warriors on horseback from central Asia, invaded the Byzantine Empire in the 11th century. During the Battle of Manzikert (1071), the Byzantine Emperor Romanus Diogenes was taken prisoner. The Seljuk threat to Constantinople forced Byzantium to send a distress call to Rome, which triggered the First Crusade.
  • 1053

    Norman Knights Unite to Take Sicily

    Norman knights, acting as mercenaries supported by the pope, the Lombards, and the Byzantine emperor, take over Sicily
  • Period: 1056 to 1147

    The Almoravids

    The Almoravids, a confederation of Berber tribes, led an 11th-century religious revival aimed at purifying Islam. They conquered Morocco and founded Marrakech in 1062. Asked by Islamic kingdoms in Spain to resist Christian reconquest, they crossed into Iberia and became dominant in the south under Yusuf Tashfin. However, they were forced out of Spain and challenged by the Almohads in North Africa.
  • Period: 1075 to 1122

    Disputes with the Papacy

    "Emperors of the Romans" often vied with the Papacy. In the 11th century, the investiture Controversy, by which Henry IV tried to assert control over the right to appoint bishops, led to his excommunication in 1076. In 1122, it was agreed that the emperor could invest bishops with authority over their secular lands, but the Pope would invest them with their spiritual authority.
  • 1076

    Pope vs. Emperor: Gregory VII Excommunicates Henry IV

    Pope Gregory VII excommunicated German Emperor Henry IV as part of a power struggle known as the Investiture Controversy
  • 1077

    Emperor Henry IV Humiliated by Pope

    Emperor Henry IV forced to do penance to the Pope over investiture Controversy
  • 1078

    Anselm Leads Bec to Theological Prominence

    Anselm is elected as Abbot of Bec, which becomes an important theological school
  • 1085

    Toledo Falls to Alfonso VI, Pushing Christian Frontier to Tagus

    Alfonso VI captures Toledo, pushing Christian control to the River Tagus
  • Period: 1085 to 1300

    Influence of Arab Scholarship

    Many scientific, and philosophical works by Greek scholars had survived only in the Islamic world, often translated into Arabic and added to by the Muslim writers. In the 12th century, these filtered into Europe, through areas such as Sicily and parts of Spain such as Toledo that had recently been conquered from Muslim powers. Manuscripts of many works by Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Euclid were then translated into Latin and helped fuel the 12th-century revival of scholarship.
  • 1086

    Yusuf Defeats Castilians at Tagus

    The Almoravid emir Yusuf defeats Castillians, haulting advances beyond the Tagus
  • Period: 1086 to 1165

    The Almoravids

    In 1085, Alfonso VI of Leon-Castile captured Toledo, the old capital of Visigothic Spain, leaving Islamic Spain vulnerable to Christian advances. In desperation, the rulers of the taifas appealed to Yusuf, the emir of the Almoravids, a strict Islamic sect from North Africa. He defeated Alfonso at Sagrajas and swept through central and eastern Spain, undergoing many recent Christian advances.
  • 1088

    Bologna Law School Becomes Europe's First University

    Bologna, an important center for legal studies, becomes the first university in Europe
  • Period: 1088 to 1348

    The New Universities

    In the 12th century, scholars such as Abelard (at Paris) and Anselm of Aosta (at Bec) taught classes in theology and logic that attracted large numbers of students. Their schools developed into 'studia generalia', or universities, which offered a wider range of courses. Bologna University was among the first of these institutions.
  • Period: 1089 to 1099

    El Cid Creates Autonomous Kingdom in Spain

    Rodrigo Diaz, "El Cid", establishes as autonomous region, resisting advances by both the Almohads and the Christian kingdoms
  • 1091

    Seljuk Turks Conquer Anatolia from Byzantines

    The Byzantine Empire lost most of Anatolia to the Seljuk Turk invasion.
  • 1095

    Pope Urban II Launches First Crusade

    Pope Urban II preaches the First Crusade at the council of Clermont
  • Period: 1095 to 1099

    The First Crusade

    In answer to an appeal from Byzantine Emperor Alexius I, Pope Urban II preached a crusade, promising the forgiveness of sins to all who took part in an expedition to retake Jerusalem. The main army of 10,000 knights - mostly Frankish nobles, who gave the expedition the name of "Princes' Crusade" - traveled across Anatolia, overcoming stiff opposition before capturing Antioch and then storming Jerusalem
  • 1096

    First Crusade: Knights and Peasants Head for Palestine

    Up to 10,000 knights and men-at-arms headed for Palestine in the First Crusade; untrained groups of peasants have already set out.
  • 1097

    Crusaders Clear Path to Palestine with Victory in Anatolia

    Attacked by Seljuk Turkish archers as they cross Anatolia, the Crusaders under Godfrey of Bouillion fought back and cleared the way to reach Palestine.
  • Period: 1097 to 1098

    Crusaders Storm Antioch After 7-Month Siege

    Crusaders besiege Antioch for 7 months, finally capturing its citadel
  • Period: 1098 to 1153

    The Cistercians and the New Monasticism

    The Cistercians emerged as the old monastic orders came to be seen as wealthy, self-serving, and distant from their original spiritual missions. Founded in 1098, the Cistercians spread under the influence of St Bernard of Clairvaux and had over 300 monasteries throughout Europe by his death in 1153. With a rigorous observance of the Rule of St Bernard, the Cistercians became noted for their piety and offered "the surest road to heaven".
  • 1099

    Jerusalem Falls to the Crusaders

    Armies of the First Crusade captured Jerusalem
  • 1099

    Jerusalem's Shifting Fortunes During the Crusades

    Jerusalem is captured by the First Crusade, it is retaken by Saladin, briefly recovered by the Sixth Crusade, and falls back into Muslim control in 1244
  • 1100

    Mimbres People: Masters of Homebuilding

    Mimbres people built single-storey settlements, each containing up to 150 rooms
  • Period: 1100 to 1200

    Developments in Literature and Song

    The 12th century saw an upsurge in literature in the vernacular (local languages), many of them epic poems such as the German sagas the 'Nibelungenlied' and Wolfram Von Eschenbach's 'Parzival'. In southern France troubadours, traveling performer-poets spread 'chansons de geste' ("songs of deeds", tales of romance, heroic deeds, and courtly love), such as the 'Chanson de Roland', which recounted episodes from Charlemagne's campaigns against the Muslims in northern Spain in the 770s.
  • Period: 1100 to 1300

    Fairs and Local Trade

    During the 12th century, large trading fairs were established in Germany and France to cater to the growing number of long-distance merchants. The greatest of all were the six held annually at four locations in the County of Champagne; the weight system used at Troyes was accepted as a universal standard in Europe.
  • Period: 1100 to 1358

    The Growth of Towns

    Rapid economic development meant that by 1300 Milan, Genoa, Naples, Florence, and Palermo had over 100,000 inhabitants and Paris perhaps 200,000. Many towns developed governments or merchant guilds. But increasingly, crowded towns bred political unrest, disease, and intolerance. Urban populations became restive, with major uprisings in Flanders in 1348 - 1359 and Paris in 1358.
  • Period: 1100 to 1492

    Jews in Medieval Europe

    By the 12th century, there were large Jewish communities (aroun d100,000) in Germany and France. Jewish merchants gained a high profile from money-lending and, combined with their status as religious outsiders, this made them vulnerable to prejudice. Jews suffered legal restrictions and massacres (especially during the Crusades and the Black Death), and by 1492 were expelled entirely from England, France, and Spain.
  • 1122

    Investiture Controversy Settled

    Agreement made to end investiture Controversy
  • 1127

    Guildhall: Symbol of Craft Guild Power

    Guildhall first mentioned as craft guilds become organised
  • 1127

    Song Empire Retreats to South China

    The Song Empire is confined to southern China after defeat by the Jurchen
  • Period: 1127 to 1279

    The Southern Song Dynasty

    From 1127, the surviving Song governed from Hangzhou in southern China, while the Jurchen (as the Jin dynasy) ruled the north. In 1233, the Southern Song allied with the Mongols to attack the Jurchen. But, after destroying the Jurchen, the Mongols then invaded the south, in 1268. They took Hangzhou in 1276 and three years later defeated the last Southern Song forces.
  • 1130

    Toledo School of Translators Bridges Cultures

    A school of translators in Toledo established by Archbishop Raymond translates many Arabic and Hebrew works
  • Period: 1130 to 1150

    Suryavarman II: The Visionary Behind Angkor Wat

    Suryavarman II ordered the building of Angkor Wat, grandest of the Angkor temples
  • 1132

    Pisa Gains Political Power Over Environs

    City of Pisa recieves political rights over villages in its environs
  • 1137

    Duke of Champagne Establishes Fair

    Charter first granted for a fair by Duke of Champagne
  • Period: 1138 to 1250

    The Hohenstaufen Empire

    The election of the first Hohenstaufen, Conrad III, in 1137 gave the imperial crown to an energetic dynasty. New towns were founded in Germany and the imperial border pushed into the east. Frederick I Barbarossa (r.1152 - 1190) reclaimed many rights for the emperor in Germany. His son Henry IV (r.1191 - 1197) aquired Sicily, which remained attached to the empire through the joint rule of his son, Frederick II, to 1250.
  • 1139

    Portuguese Count Claims Victory Over Muslims

    Portuguese count Alfonso Henrigues defeats the Muslim army
  • Period: 1139 to 1249

    The Reconquista in Portugal

    In 1139, Count Alfonso Henriques won an overwhelming victory over the Muslims at Ourique. Lisbon was captured in 1147 with the help of crusaders on their way to the Second Crusade. The conquest of the Algarve was begun in the 1190s, but an Almohad resurgence pushed back the Portuguese forces back and the Reconquista was not completed there until 1249.
  • 1144

    Second Crusade Launched to Reclaim Edessa

    The capture of the county of Edessa leads to calling for the Second Crusade.
  • 1147

    Crusaders Aid Portuguese Conquest of Lisbon

    Crusaders help the Portuguese to capture Lisbon from local Muslim rulers
  • 1147

    Crusading Army Helps Alfonso Henriques Take Lisbon

    The Crusading army helps Alfonso Henriques to capture Lisbon
  • Period: 1147 to 1149

    The Second Crusade

    The fall of the isolated outpost of Edessa to Zengi, the Muslim ruler of Aleppo, caused shock in Europe and led to the preaching of a new crusade by Pope Eugenius III. The crusaders, mainly from Germany and France, traveled largely by sea, but, despite besieging Damascus, achieved little and did not recover Edessa.
  • 1148

    Damascus Siege Fails Due to Poor Crusader Planning

    Second Crusaders besiege Damascus but poor organisation forces their retreat
  • 1150

    Aztecs construct Artificial Floating Islands

    Aztecs constructed artificial islands, known as chinampas, around Lake Texcoco to boost agricultural productivity
  • Period: 1150 to 1500

    Banking

    In the early 12th century, Italian merchants began to finance their ventures through bills of exchange. Banks specializing in providing this credit emerged, such as the Peruzzi and then, most prominently, the Medici in 1397. By the late 15th century, the Medici had been eclipsed by competitors who had grown rich on lending to the Austrian Habsburgs.
  • Period: 1154 to 1337

    Origins of the War - 100 Year War

    During the reign of Henry II of England (1154 - 1189), his realm included large areas in France, although by the time Edward III came to power in 1327, these had been reduced to Gascony alone. Edward, who was related to Charles IV of France, refused to pay homage to the French king for Gascony, and also laid claim to the French throne after Charles died, leading to a war.
  • 1160

    Oxford University Grows and Receives Royal Charter

    Student numbers at Oxford University grew, it gained a royal charter in 1248
  • Period: 1165 to 1228

    The Almohads

    In 1165, an African Muslim group, the Almohads, entered Spain and renewed Islamic opposition to Christian enroachments. In 1195, they won a stunning victory against Alfonso VIII of Castile at Alarcos, opening up southern Spain to Almohad dominance. In 1212, Alfonso struck back, destroyingthe Almohad army at Las Navas de Tolosa and weakening the Muslims' military capacity.
  • 1177

    Angkor Falls to Jaya Indravarman IV

    Angkor was captured by the Cham army under Jaya Indravarman IV
  • 1180

    Kilwa Claims Gold Trade Supremacy

    Kilwa seizes Sofala, gaining control of the gold trade with Great Zimbabwe
  • Period: 1180 to

    Kingdom of Benin

    The Benin Kingdom established itself in the 11th or 12th century. Its territory increased dramatically during the reign of Oba (king) Ewuare (r.1440 - 1473), under whom the capital, Benin, became a large walled town. Benin craftsmen were prized for their skills, practically in producing ivory masks and bronze plaques, which adorned the royal palace.
  • 1182

    Venetian Merchants Massacred in Trade Rivalry

    Venetian merchants massacred during a riot, due to theire domination of the city's maritime trade.
  • 1183

    Minamoto Clan Triumphs at Kurikara-tani

    Victory at the Battle of Kurikara-tani turns the tide of the Genpei War in favour of the Minamoto clan
  • 1185

    Battle of Dan-no-Oura Establishes Kamakura Shogunate

    The battle of Dan-no-Oura marks Minamoto victory in the Genpei War and establishes the Kamakura shogunate.
  • 1187

    Jerusalem Vulnerable After Saladin's Victory at Hattin

    Saladin destroys Crusader army at the Horns of Hattin, leaving Jerusalem defenseless
  • 1189

    Minamoto Triumphs over Fujiwara

    Minamoto defeats the Fujiwara clan
  • Period: 1189 to 1192

    The Third Crusade

    In 1187, Saladin, the Muslim ruler of Egypt, captured Jerusalem, prompting the calling of a further crusade. A crusader army led by King Richard the Lionheart of England and King Phillip Augustus of France succeeded in checking Saladin's advance, and took the important cities of Jaffa and Acre, but was unable to recover Jerusalem - which had been the goal of the expedition.
  • 1190

    Crusade Ends in Tragedy for Frederick Barbarossa

    The Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa drowned in a river en route to the Holy Land of the Third Crusade.
  • Period: 1192 to 1333

    The Kamakura Shogunate

    Minamoto Yoritomo founded the Kamakura shogunate in 1192. The shogunate re-established contact with China, which resulted in Japan adopting new sects of Buddhism, in particular Zen Buddhism. The shogunate appointed its own military governors, or shugo, as heads of each province and named stewards to supervise the individual estates into which the provinces had been divided, thereby establishing an effective national network to maintain stability.
  • 1195

    Almohads Halt Christian Advance in Southern Spain

    A major Almohad victory establishes control over southern Spain, halting Christian advance.
  • 1200

    Polynesian Statues Grace Raivavae

    The Polynesians erect monumental stone statues on Raivavae in the Austral Islands
  • 1200

    Mayapan Rises as a Maya Powerhouse

    Mayapan becomes a vast and powerful Maya political centre
  • Period: 1200 to 1400

    The Settlement of New Zealand

    The last major island group to be colonized by the Polynesians was New Zealand (or Aotearoa), which they reached around 1200 CE. The initial settlement was on North Island, and the Maori (as the Polynesians of New Zealand became known) were able to supply their diet with moa (a flightless bird) and shellfish that were abundant there.
  • 1201

    Cricket's Roots: From Medieval Game to Global Sport

    Cricket's earliest documented reference dates back to 1597 in England, with evidence from a court case in Guildford, Surrey, suggesting it was already playing around 1550. However, historians believe it developed during the medieval period, possibly as early as the 13th century, as a children's game in the Weald region of south-eastern England.
  • 1202

    Fourth Crusade Sacks Zara

    Army of the Fourth Crusade pillages the port of Zara
  • Period: 1202 to 1204

    The Fourth Crusade

    When the Fourth Crusade hit difficulties raising money, the Venetians offered their financial backing but as a condition, they diverted the Crusaders into a conquest of Constantinople. The Crusaders looted, terrorized, and vandalized the city. In the aftermath, the empire was divided between Venetians and Crusader lords, while a few Greek areas remained independent, notably the Byzantine states of Nicaea. The sacking reduced the empire to a city-state.
  • Period: 1202 to 1204

    The Fourth Crusade

    Called by Pope Innocent III, the crusade originally set out to reconquer Jerusalem, but its army was diverted by Alexios Angelos, an exiled Byzantine prince, who promised the crusaders a great reward if they helped him recover his throne. Instead, the crusaders sacked Constantinople (the capital of the Christian-controlled Byzantine empire), divided the empire among their leaders, and never reached Jerusalem.
  • 1204

    Fourth Crusade Conquers Constantinople

    Constantinople was captured by the Fourth Crusade
  • 1204

    Crusader Intervention Leads to Constantinople's Fall

    Crusaders attack Constantinople after intervening in a quarrel between rival claimants to the Byzantine throne
  • 1206

    Delhi Sultanate Founded

    The Delhi Sultanate was established in India
  • Period: 1206 to 1227

    Genghis Khan Conquers Asia

    Under Genghis Khan, Mongol raids into northern China turned into a full-scale campaign in 1211. Meanwhile, Mongol forces marched westwards besieging the Kara Khitai cities of Balasaghun and Kashgar. When a Mongol envoy to the Khwarazm Empire was slaughtered in Otrar; the Mongols sacked the major cities of the Islamic empire. In 1219, Genghis Khan chose his third son Ogedei as his successor.
  • 1209

    Cambridge University Founded by Oxford Refugees

    Students fleeing unrest in Oxford help to establish Cambridge University
  • 1209

    Genghis Khan's Victory at Wu-ta-hai

    After defeating a Western Xia force led by Kao Liang-Hui outside Wu-ta-hai, Genghis Khan captured the city and pushed up along the Yellow River.
  • Period: 1211 to 1293

    Mongol Conquest of China

    A series of Great Khans overcame China in stages. Genghis Khan conquered the non-Chinese powers occupying northern China - the Western Xia and the Jurchen people had founded the Jin Dynasty. Genghis's grandson Mongke Khan then took the Dali kingdom (which later became the Yunnan province of Yuan China). Finally, Mongke's successor Kublai Khan overthrew then entirety of Song China, becoming the first non-native emperor of all China.
  • 1212

    Alfonso VIII destroys Almohad caliphate

    Alfonso VIII of Castile's victory shatters Almohad caliphate
  • Period: 1212 to 1248

    The Great Reconquest

    After defeating the Almohads at Las Navas de Tolosa, the armies of Castile and Leon pushed further southwards. Weakened, the Almohad caliphate fractured into three parts, helping Ferdinand III of Castile to capture Cordova in 1236 and Seville 1248. The loss of these cities was a blow to Islamic Spain, and soon only the emirate of Granada survived under Muslim control.
  • 1215

    Mongol Siege Starves Jin Capital into Submission

    Mongol siege starved the Jin Chinese capital's inhabitants into submission
  • 1215

    Zhongdu Crumbles Under Genghis Khan's Might

    Genghis Khan destroyed the Jurchen (Jin) capital of Zhongdu
  • Period: 1215 to 1368

    Mongols Rule the Silk Road

    Following the 13th-century Mongol conquests, the entire network of roads became part of the vast Mongol realm. The Mongols established a system of fortified posthouses to safeguard the passage of trade along the routes, encouraging the exchange of goods and culture between the East and West. Italian explorer Marco Polo famously traveled on a branch of the Silk Road to reach China in 1275.
  • Period: 1218 to 1219

    Genoese Besiege Damietta in Fifth Crusade

    Genoese fleet besieges Damietta as part of the Fifth Crusade
  • Period: 1220 to 1450

    Kingdom of Zimbabwe

    The largest of the early hilltop towns in southern Africa was Great Zimbabwe, a huge settlement with massive dry stone walls. It flourished from the 11th to the late 15th centuries CE. Its population was around 30,000 and its rulers grew rich in foreign trade, with exotic imports including pottery from China.
  • 1221

    Mongols Defeat Jalal ad-Din at Indus River Battle

    Mongols pursued Mamluk leader Jalal ad-Din and defeated him at the Battle of Indus
  • 1224

    Itza Inherit Desolate Toltec City

    The city was abandoned by the Toltecs. A people known as the Uicil-abnal, which later takes the name Itza, settles in the desolate city
  • 1229

    Aragon Conquers Mallorca

    Juame of Aragon captures Mallorcan capital of Palma
  • Period: 1229 to 1241

    Ogedei Khan invades Europe

    Following Genghis Khan's death in 1227, Ogedei officially ascended the throne in 1229. Ogedei directed the Mongol campaign into Europe. In 1236, Mongol forces captured and destroyed major towns including Vladimir and Moscow. In 1241, the Mongol army crushed Poland, Hungary, and Bulgaria. It was the untimely death of Ogadei in 1241 that stopped the Mongol army from advancing into Western Europe.
  • 1235

    Imperial Laws Translated into German

    Imperial laws published in German for the first time
  • Period: 1235 to

    Mali Empire

    Mali had its origins in a Mande clan called the Keita on the upper Niger and became a significant power under its founder, Prince Sundiata Keita. The empire grew immensely rich through trade with the Arab world, and it won fame for all the gold its later ruler Mansa Musa carried during his pilgrimage to Mecca.
  • 1236

    Ferdinand III conquers Cordova

    Ferdinand III conquers the former Unayyad capital
  • 1238

    Christians Take Control of Southeast Spain

    The capture of Valencia leaves most of the southeast in Christian hands
  • 1241

    Mongols Crush Polish-German Forces at Liegnitz

    Mongols destroyed a Polish-German army, opening the way for further conquest in Europe
  • 1241

    Mongols Cross Frozen Vistula to Attack Poland

    A 30,000-strong Mongol cavalry crosses the frozen Vistula River to invade Poland
  • 1248

    Ferdianand leaves Grenada isolated after the capture of Seville

    The capture of Seville by Ferdinand III leaves Grenada isolated
  • Period: 1248 to 1254

    The Seventh Crusade

    Led by King Louis IX of France, the crusade set out to destroy the Ayybid dynasty in Egypt and Syria, then recaptured Jerusalem (which the Muslims had retaken in 1244). Louis captured Damietta in 1249, but the crusade became bogged down in a siege of Mansurah, in which many crusaders died. Louis was captured and was ransomed, the price of his return being Damietta, leaving the crusade a total failure.
  • 1249

    Faro Falls: Reconquista Complete

    The Muslim enclave of Faro is captured, marking the end of the Reconquista in Portugal
  • Period: 1250 to 1525

    Inca Capital

    The Sapa Inca ruled the empire from Cuzco, which sat at the centre of a 20,000-km (12,500-mile) road network. The Sapa Inca imposed a realm-wide taxation system (paid in kind), controlled trade, and drew on a large peasant labour force for construction projects.
  • Period: 1251 to 1259

    Defeat at Ain Jalut

    Under Great Khan Mongke, the Mongols overthrew the Abbasid Caliphate, brutally sacking Baghdad and destroying the city's Grand Library. Mongke's death in 1259 prompted part of the army to return home, and the rest suffered defeat at the Battle of Ain Jalut against the Mamluks - an Islamic army of slave soldiers who ruled Egypt and Syria from 1250 to 1517.
  • Period: 1251 to 1294

    Kublai Khan takes China

    The grandson of Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, overthrew the Song Dynasty in 1279 and conquered the whole of China to establish the Yuan Dynasty. He gained the loyalty of his Chinese subjects by employing many in his administration. In 1277, he launched campaigns against Burma and Vietnam, in what was a decade-long war against the Pagan Empire.
  • 1253

    Kublai Khan Conquers Dali Kingdom

    Mongol leader Mongke Khan dispatched Prince Kublai to take the Dali kingdom (Yunnan province)
  • 1255

    18 Jews Executed in London Ritual Murder Trial

    18 Jews executed after being charged with ritual murder in London
  • 1258

    Mongols Conquer Baghdad

    Mongol armies sacked Baghdad
  • 1258

    Baghdad Falls: End of an Era

    A 12-day siege ends with the brutal sacking of Baghdad - the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate
  • Period: 1259 to 1411

    The Four Khanates

    A single Mongol ruler could not govern the vast imperial realm. In 1259, the empire was divided into four khanates. Each of the four realms was ruled by a descendant of Genghis Khan; the Khanate of the house of Chaghatai, the Il-khanate of Hulagu, the Golden Horde of Berke Khan, and what became the Yuan Empire of Kublai Khan.
  • 1260

    Mamluks Turn the Tide with Terrain Knowledge with a Victory over Mongols

    A better knowledge of the terrain helped the Mamluks inflict first defeat on the Mongol army
  • 1264

    Kublai Khan Establishes New Yuan Capital

    Kublai Khan ordered the construction of the future Yuan capital
  • 1265

    Visby Treaty Creates Hanseatic League

    Treaty with Visby forms the basis of the Hanseatic League
  • Period: 1265 to

    The Hanseatic League

    In 1265, a group of towns agreed to meet annually to discuss common buisness. They soon grew into the Hanseatic League, containing up to 200 towns. The League grew powerful enough to enforce its will on states. The Thirty Years' War, and increased Dutch competition, broke the group's dominance, and its council last met in 1669.
  • 1268

    Conradin, Last Hohenstaufen Ruler, Executed on Charles of Anjou’s Orders

    Conradin, the last Hohenstaufen ruler, is executed on the orders of Charles of Anjou
  • 1270

    Louis IX Dies in Tunis During Crusade

    Crusaders led by Louis IX of France attack Tunis but are struck down by disease; Louis dies
  • 1270

    Mongols Conquer Korea, Goryeo Court Retreats to Island

    Mongols establish a government in Korea; the Goryeo court survives only on an offshore island
  • Period: 1272 to 1368

    The Yuan Dynasty

    Kublai Khan proclaimed that 1272 was the first year of the Yuan dynasty, with newly built Khanbaliq, or Dadu (modern-day Beijing) its capital. After construction was completed in 1293, Dadu featured a grand palace and huge fortress walls around its perimeter. Meanwhile, Kublai retained links with the Mongolian heartland by making Shangdu the empire's summer capital.
  • 1273

    Kublai Khan Appoints Tax Collector

    Kublai appoints a governor to ensure taxes are collected for the Yuan
  • Period: 1274 to 1281

    Luckless in Japan

    In 1274, Kublai Khan dispatched a fleet to conquer Japan. Despite scoring some early victories, the Mongols were forced to retreat when a storm destroyed hundreds of ships, many of which were flat-bottomed river vessels. A second invasion in 1281 met a similar fate, as the Mongol armada was unable to penetrate the Japanese defence wall and perished when it was struck by a typhoon.
  • 1276

    Mongols Defeat Song Fleet, Last Emperor Drowns

    Mongols defeat the Song fleet; the last Song emperor seven-year old Zhao Bing, drowns.
  • 1279

    Mongol Conquest of China Complete

    Kublai Khan completes the Mongol conquest of China
  • 1279

    Yuan Dynasty Founded After Mongol Conquest

    Mongols complete the conquest of the southern Song region and establish the Yuan dynasty
  • Period: 1279 to 1368

    Trading WorldWide

    The Yuan Empire opened China to the outside world, resulting in the realm engaging in more extensive foreign trade than ever before. While the move saw a resurgence of the Silk Road, technological advances in shipbuilding and navigation led to the opening of new sea-lanes to Southeast Asia. The city of Guangzhou became the most important trade port during the Yuan era.
  • Period: 1280 to 1326

    The Origins of the Ottoman Empire

    After the collapse of the Seljuk Empire, western Anatolia was divided into a number of competing states, knows as beyliks. One of them, based around the small town of Sogut, began to expand in the 1280s under Osman. His son, Orthan, captured the important Byzantine town of Bursa in 1326 and made it his capital. From here he conquered much of the rest of Anatolia and sent the first Ottoman army into Europe.
  • 1281

    Church Synod Bans Jews from Public Office

    Chruch Synod forbids Jews from holding public office
  • 1281

    Massive Yuan Fleet Sets Sail for Japan

    Yuan fleet on a mission to conquer Japan comprised 3,500 ships with up to 100,000 soldiers
  • Period: 1281 to 1293

    The Grand Canal

    The Yuan rounded up 4 million peasants to work on a new, direct route from the Grand Canal, the oldest parts of which dated to the 6th century BCE. The labourers carved a passage hundreds of miles long through hill country, linking the capital to Hangzhou. This allowed grain transport to the north, further disenfranchising the populace.
  • 1287

    Pagan Succumbs to Mongol Might

    Pagan falls to the Mongols
  • 1291

    Acre Falls, Ending Crusader Rule in the Holy Land

    The last major crusader stronghold, Acre, falls to a Mamluk offensive
  • 1293

    Kublai Khan's Javanese Conquest Turns to Defeat

    Kublai's campaign against the Javanese Kingdom of Singhasari ended in defeat and the loss of 3,000 elite soldiers.
  • 1293

    Mongolian Armada Retreats from Java

    Mongol forces return after an unsuccessful invasion of Java
  • 1300

    Spiro: A Thriving Caddoan Ceremonial Center

    Caddoan settlements in Spiro become a large ceremonial centre with a chamber filled with offerings
  • 1326

    Bursa, First Ottoman Capital

    Bursa becomes the first Ottoman capital
  • Period: 1326 to 1402

    The Conquest of Anatolia

    Under Orthan, the Ottomans conquered most of the remaining Byzantine cities in northwest Anatolia, leaving only isolated outposts. Anatolia was later unified under Ottoman control by Orthan's grandson (the son of Murad I), Bayezid I, who conquered the beyliks in the southwest soon after he became Sultan in 1389.
  • 1330

    Spread Through Central Asia

    A series of poor harvests, earthquakes, floods, and swarms of locusts - all of which weakened the population - was followed in 1331 by an outbreak of plague around Lake Issyk-Kul to the west of China. Whole communities died, and from there the Black Death spread westwards along the Silk Road trade routes towards Europe.
  • 1330

    Plague from China Sparked Black Death

    Significant plague outbreaks in western China marked the beginning of the European Black Death.
  • 1331

    Origins in China

    Chinese historians kept records of plagues as far back as 244 BCE; they noted symptoms similar to those of bubonic plague in an outbreak in 642 CE. The Black Death probably began in Hebei province in 1331, where it killed up to 90 per cent of the population and hastened the end of Mongol rule in China.
  • Period: 1335 to 1348

    The Black Death in the Middle East

    The Black Death reached Persia by 1335. It spread from there to the rest of the Middle East, affecting large, crowded urban centers, such as Damascus in Syria and Cairo in Egypt, particulary badly. The famous Moroccan scholar Ibn Battutah reported 2,000 people a day dying of the disease in Damascus.
  • 1336

    Go-Daigo is expelled to Kyoto following a fail to restore imperial power

    Emperor Go-Daigo's revolt to restore imperial power fails and he is expelled from Kyoto
  • 1337

    Hundred Years' War Begins

    The Hundred Years War between France and England begins
  • 1340

    Edward III Shatters French Fleet, Seizes English Channel

    Edward III destroyed the French fleet, giving him control of the English Channel.
  • Period: 1340 to 1346

    The Crecy Campaign

    In 1340, Edward engaged the French fleet off Sluys, defeating it conclusively. Later, he also sent forces to Bruges and Brittany, but the expeditions were inconclusive. In 1346, Edward returned with a larger army, which, equipped with longbows, crushed the French at Crecy.
  • 1345

    Bankruptcy of the Bardi and Peruzzi

    Collapse of the Bardi and Peruzzi banks.
  • 1345

    Petrarch's Cicero Discovery Sparks Renaissance

    Italian writer Francesco Petrarca (or Petrarch) rediscovers some letters written by the Roman politician and writer Cicero; their publication is credited with helping to initiate the Renaissance.
  • 1346

    Plague Ravages Cairo, Killing 10,000-15,000 Daily

    Between 10,000 and 15,000 people die each day at the height of the plague in Cairo
  • 1346

    Caffa Siege Opens Door to Black Death

    The Tatar siege of Caffa allows the spread of the Black Death
  • Period: 1346 to 1347

    The Plague in Europe

    In 1346 the Black Sea port of Caffa came under siege by the Tatar's, a Mongol group, who were keen to push out its Genoese garrison. According to some sources, the Tatar army became infected with the plague, and their commander, Khan Janibeg, had the corpses of dead plague victims catapulted inside the city. Soon the Genoese caught the disease too, and sufferers on a ship fleeing Caffa transmitted it further west.
  • 1347

    Plague Sweeps Through Persia

    Plague breaks out in an army besieging Tabriz and sweeps through Persia
  • 1347

    Plague Ravages Constantinople and Beyond

    Plague reaches the Byzantine capital of Constantinople and spreads to western Anatolia and the Balkans.
  • Period: 1347 to 1348

    Arrival in Italy

    Genoese refugees from plague hit Caffa brought the Black Death to Italy in late 1347. From the ports where the victims landed - including Venice, which lost three quaters of inhabitants - the diesease spread inland. Thousands of bodies were pitched into communal graves. In Florence, many of the banking families who had the city prosperous went out of business.
  • 1348

    Black Death Scourges Europe

    The Black Death devastates most of Europe
  • 1348

    Pogrom Hits Jewish Quarter

    Jewish quater suffers pogrom
  • 1348

    Black Death Arrives in Italy and Spreads

    Plague arrives in north Italian ports and spreads throughout Italy, Anatolia, and the Balkans
  • 1348

    Pilgrims Spread Plague to Arabia

    Pilgrams performing the haj to Mecca carry the plague into Arabia
  • Period: 1348 to 1350

    The Black Death reaches Britain

    The plague traelled furtherst and fastest by sea, so Britain and other maritime nations were affected before inland northern and eastern Europe. The plague entered Britain in July 1348 and reached London 6 months later. Crowded filthy streets made ideal breeding grounds for plague rats and their fleas. About 40,000 people died - half the city's population.
  • Period: 1348 to 1353

    The Decameron: A Masterpiece of Italian Prose

    Giovanni Bocaccio wrote 'The Decameron', one of the greatest early works of Italian prose.
  • 1349

    Venice Defeats Genoa in Naval Battle

    Venetians inflict major naval defeat on Genoa
  • 1349

    Black Death Leads to Expulsion of Jews

    Jewish population is expelled after being blamed for the Black Death
  • 1349

    Scandinavia Hit by Plague from England

    Plague spreads into Scandinavia, carried by ships from England to Bergen in Norway
  • 1350

    Casa Grandes: A Hub of Trade and Innovation

    Settlements in Casa Grandes developed larger multistory dwellings and was an important location on trade routes for the spread of Mesoamerican ideas to the north.
  • Period: 1351 to 1368

    Red Turban Rebellion

    A series of floods and droughts in the 1340s was interrupted by the Chinese as divine signs of the Yuan having lost the "Mandate of Heaven". Revolts broke out across the realm and gave rise to the Red Turban Rebellion. Led by Zhu Yuanzhang, the rebels drove out the Yuan court and seized the capital in 1368.
  • Period: 1354 to 1389

    The Ottomans in the Balkans

    In 1354, the Ottomans crossed over to Gallipoli, establishing a toehold in Europe. Under Murad I they occupied much of Thrace, making Edirne (Adrianople) their new capital. The defeat of Serbia at the Battle of Kosovo (1389) marked the beginning of Ottoman supremacy in the Balkans.
  • 1355

    Black Prince Launches Brutal Raids on Southwest France

    The Black Prince launches a series of raids, devastating much of southwest France
  • 1356

    Black Prince Captures French King

    The Black Prince defeats and captures King John II
  • 1360

    Treaty of Bretigny

    Conflict resumed after a hiatus during which the Black Death was rampant throughout Europe. In 1356, the Black Prince - the son of Edward III - won a major victory at Poitiers during which King John II of France was captured. Edward III himself soon returned to France, unsuccessfully laying siege to Rheims. England and France negotiated a treaty at Brtigny in 1360 under which England received more land in southwest France and a large ransom for King John II of France
  • Period: 1366 to 1453

    Edirne: Ottoman Capital for 87 Years

    Edirne (Adrianople) was the Ottoman Capital until 1453
  • Period: 1368 to 1435

    Golden Age of the Ming

    The Ming engaged in domestic and foreign trade, establishing major commercial centres predominantly along China's eastern coast. The country exported manufactured goods such as porcelain, silk cloth, and paper. During this period, the growth in international trade encouraged many Chinese people to settle in cities throughout Southeast Asia.
  • Period: 1368 to 1398

    Early Ming

    Zhu Yuanzhang became the Hongwu emperor - the first ruler of the ming dynasty, which would rule China for the next three centuries. He took personal control of the organs of government and restored order throughout the country. He instituted public work projects and introduced reforms to distribute land to peasants.
  • Period: 1368 to 1420

    Nanking: The New Capital of the Ming Dynasty

    Nanking is the Capital of the new Ming Dynasty
  • Period: 1369 to 1389

    The French Ascendancy

    The Treaty of Bretigny did not establish lasting peace, and in 1369 Charles V of France declared war again. Charles fought ably, using guerrilla tactics and avoiding major pitched battles. Despite years of campaigning by Edward III's heir, the Black Prince (who became side-tracked in a war in Spain), the English were driven out of areas they had gained in the Treaty.
  • 1370

    Hanseatic Merchants Secure Trade Freedom in Germany

    Treaty allows complete freedom of trade in Germany for Hanseatic merchants
  • 1372

    Castilian Fleet Breaks English Siege of La Rochelle

    Castilian fleet helps to break an English siege of La Rochelle, the first major English naval defeat of the Hundred Years War
  • Period: 1378 to 1382

    Clombi Uprising: Urban Workers Rise Up

    Clombi Uprising of urban labourers and artisians not represented by the guilds
  • 1388

    Yi Seong-gye Founds Choson Dynasty

    Yi Seong-gye overthrown Goryeo rule to establish the Choson dynasty
  • 1389

    Ottoman Conquest of Serbia Begins at Kosovo

    Ottoman victory at Kosovo leads to the conquest of Serbia
  • 1397

    Medici Family Launches Banking Empire

    Medici bank first established
  • Period: 1400 to 1405

    Mongol Threat

    In 1400 - 01, the Mongol prince Timur, angered by Bayezid I's demands for tribute from one of his vassals, invaded the Ottoman Empire. At Ankara in 1402, Timur crushed the Ottomans, causing many of the beyliks of Anatolia to break away from Ottoman rule. Only Timur's death in 1405 saved the Ottomans from further losses.
  • 1401

    Lorenzo Ghiberti's "Gates of Paradise"

    Florentine artist Lorenzo Ghiberti is commissioned to cast new doors for Florence Cathedral's baptistry.
  • 1402

    Battle of Ankara: Timur Crushes Bayezid

    Bayezid defeated by Timur
  • 1410

    Gao's Prosperity Draws Mali's Attention

    Gao became so prosperous it attracts the attention of the Mali Empire and its rulers
  • 1415

    Henry V Decimates French Nobility

    Henry V defeats the French army; a large proportion of the French nobility is killed
  • Period: 1415 to 1420

    The Aginourt Campaing

    In 1415, Henry V of England resumed the war, sailing to France and Besieging Harfleur. At Agincourt, he won a victory in which the French knights were decimated by English and Welsh longbowmen. Henry swept through northern France and by the Treaty of Troyes (1420) was recognized as heir to the French throne.
  • 1417

    Bracciolini's Uncovering of Epicurean Wisdom

    Bracciolini unearths a manuscript of 'De Rerum Natura' ("Of the Nature of Things") by ancient Roman philosopher Lucretius.
  • Period: 1419 to 1435

    Paris Under English Rule

    Paris is occupied by the English
  • Period: 1420 to 1429

    English Consolidation

    The 1420s began with setbacks for the English, including the death of Henry V from dysentery on a campaign in 1422. Even so, the English, led by the Duke of Bedford, consolidated their hold on northern France, helped by a Burgundian alliance occupying all the territory between the Seine and the Loire. Finally, in 1428 the Earl of Silinsbury struck at the strategic town of Orleans.
  • 1421

    Emperor Yongle Builds a Majestic Palace in Beijing

    Emperor Yongle ordered the construction of the Forbidden City in the new capital Beijing
  • 1423

    Da Feltre creates a Latin grammer school in Mantua

    Vittorino da Feltre sets up a Latin grammer school in Mantua
  • Period: 1427 to 1440

    Aztec Alliance

    Aztec expansion gained momentum during the reign of Itzcoatl, who in 1428 formed key partnerships, known as the Triple Alliance, with the cities of Texcoco and Tlacopan. The alliance allowed the Aztecs to overthrow the powerful Tepanecs and become the principal power in Mesoamerica.
  • 1429

    Aztecs Unite with Neighbors to Form Empire

    The Aztecs established the Triple Alliance with other states in the Valley of Mexico, which formed the basis of their empire
  • 1429

    English Lose Northern France After Patay Defeat

    A decisive defeat at Patay by the French led to the English loss of northern France
  • Period: 1429 to 1431

    Joan of Arc

    In 1429, the English besieged Orleans, one of the last French strongholds. The arrival of a peasant girl, Joan of Arc, who claimed to have received divine messages that France should resist, inspired the French (under Charles VII) to fight back and recapture much of the north. Joan was captured by the Burgundians and burned at the stake, but English dominance of France was broken.
  • 1430

    Joan of Arc Captured

    Joan of Arc is captured by the Burgundians
  • 1430

    Ottoman Conquest of Salonica

    Salonica is captured by the Ottomans
  • 1431

    Angkor Abandoned After Thai Attacks

    Angkor is abandoned after attacks by the Thai kingdom of Ayutthaya
  • Period: 1435 to 1453

    The End of the War

    In 1435, the Burgundians broke off their alliance with the English, who then lost control of Paris. During the 1440s, most of the rest of northern France was reconquered by Charles VII until the English held only the area around Bordeaux. A final defeat at Castillon led to Bordeaux's fall to the French and the end of the war.
  • 1436

    Brunelleschi's Architectural Triumph

    Brunelleschi completes the dome of Florence Cathedral
  • 1438

    Pachacuti's Conquests Forge the Inca Empire

    Pachacuti began a series of conquests that established the Inca Empire
  • 1438

    Yupanqui's Victory over Chancas Paves Way for Inca Expansion

    Inca ruler Yupanqui defeated the Chancas to control the Cuzco Valley and further expand the Inca Empire.
  • Period: 1438 to

    Rise of the Habsburgs

    Originally comparatively minor nobles in Switzerland, by the 13th century the Habsburgs had obtained lands in Austria. These they used as a base from which to aquire the imperial throne, whose occupants were all Habsburgs from 1438. Despite overseeing reforms to the empire, their power base and dynastic interest remained firmly rooted in Austria and their other possesions in the Netherlands and Spain.
  • Period: 1438 to 1471

    The Birth of the Inca Empire

    Led by Cusi Yupanqui, in 1438 the Incas defeated the Chancas, who had attacked the Inca stronghold in Cuzco. Yupanqui took the name Pachacutec and became the Sapa Inca (Inca ruler). He then waged a series of wars that resulted in Inca expansion and culminated with victory in Chan Chan, the capital of the Chimu civilization, in 1470.
  • 1440

    Donatello's David Graces the Palazzo Medici

    Donatello is commissioned to make a statue of the biblical hero David for the Palazzo Medici
  • Period: 1440 to 1468

    Aztecs' Rapid Expansion

    Moctezuma I extended the empire to the Gulf Coast and established the tribute system by which the conquered people were obliged to supply goods to the Aztec elite in the capital. He also introduced the "Flower Wars" - ceremonial battles against the rival city-states. The captives from these battles were brought to the city temples and sacrificed to the Aztec gods (to ensure that the Sun would keep rising each day).
  • 1441

    Japan Plunged into Disunity by Shogun's Death

    The assassination of shogun Ashikaga Yoshinori sparks the Onin Wars and 150 years of Japanese disunity
  • Period: 1441 to 1455

    Portuguese Instigators

    In the early 15th century the Portuguese raided the West African coast for slaves to labour on the large estates of the Algarve region on the mainland and on the Atlantic islands colonized by Portugal, such as Cape Verde and Madeira. By 1455, around 10 per cent of the population of Lisbon was black.
  • 1444

    Crusade Defeated, Ottoman Expansion Continues

    An attempted crusade to prevent Ottoman expansion is defeated
  • 1448

    Diogo Cao Plants Portuguese Flag in Angola

    Explorer Diogo Cao claims Angola for the Portuguese
  • 1449

    Zhengtong Captured by Mongols

    Zhengtong surrenders to Mongol leader Sen Tajiji and is taken captive.
  • Period: 1449 to 1457

    From Emperor to Prisoner

    In 1449, Emperor Zhengtong was captured after leading an ill-advised war against the Mongols. He was released after a year but spent several years battling to return to the throne. Throughout Ming rule, measures were taken to reinforce the northern frontier against any Mongol invasion; the Great Wall was extended and then fortified with a series of garrisons and 1,200 watchtowers.
  • 1450

    Milan's Population Hits 85,000

    Population of Milan reaches 85,000
  • 1450

    Portugal Pioneers the Transatlantic Slave Trade

    Portugal became the first to export slaves from the West African coast
  • Period: 1451 to 1453

    The Siege of Constantinople

    By the time Mehmed II became Ottoman sultan in 1451, the Byzantine Empire consisted of little more than the city of Constantinople. Mehmed throttled the city's supply lines and laid seige to it in April 1453. The Byzantine emperor Constantine XI resisted for nearly 8 weeks before the Ottomans finally took over the city. The Byzantine Empire was at an end and the Ottoman Empire had a new capital.
  • 1453

    Shrewsbury's Defeat at Castillon Ends English Rule in France

    The English commander, the Earl of Shrewsbury, is defeated at Castillon, leading to the loss of Guyenne and Gascony
  • 1453

    Ottoman Conquest of Constantinople Marks End of Byzantine Era

    The capture of Constantinople, led by Sultan Mehmed II, after a siege marks the end of the Byzantine Empire
  • 1453

    France Reclaims Bordeaux, Ending the Hundred Years' War

    The Hundred Year's War ended with France's recapture of Bordeaux from the English
  • 1453

    Greek Manuscripts Find a New Home in Italy

    With the fall of Constantinople, many Byzantine scholars came to Italy, bringing with them Greek manuscripts previously unknown in the West.
  • 1453

    Constantinople to Istanbul: A City's Transformation

    Ottomans made Constantinople their capital, renaming it Istanbul
  • Period: 1453 to 1495

    The Conquest of the Balkans

    After taking Constantinople in 1453, Mehmed II claimed the remaining Byzantine possessions, finally seizing Morea in 1460. He conquered Serbia in 1454 and annexed Bosnia in 1463. Moldavia and the Republic of Ragusa both yielded peacefully to the Ottomans and became tributary states. Only a failed siege of Belgrade in 1456 halted Ottoman advances further west.
  • 1455

    Gutenberg Bible Printed in Mainz

    The Gutenberg Bible is printed in Mainz, Germany
  • 1455

    Gutenberg Bible: Europe's First Printed Book

    Publication of the 'Gutenberg Bible', the first printed book in Europe
  • 1455

    Lisbon's African Community Thrives

    10 per cent of Lisbon's population is made up of African slaves
  • Period: 1455 to 1520

    Tlaxcala and the Aztecs: A History of Ritual Warfare

    The Tlaxcala frequently engage in ritual wars, known as Flower Wars, against the Aztec Triple Alliance cities.
  • 1456

    Ottoman Advance into Hungary Halted by Siege Failure

    The failure of a seige by Mehmed II puts an end to Ottoman advance into Hungary
  • 1460

    Ottoman Conquest of Morea

    Ottomans captured the Byzantine territory of Morea (Peloponnese)
  • Period: 1460 to 1481

    Conquest of Mehmed II

    Having captured Constantinople, Mehmed II dealt with the remaining fragments of the Byzantine Empire, capturing Morea in 1460 and the breakaway Empire of Trebizond in 1461. The defeat of Bosnia in 1463 and the reduction of Wallachia and Moldavia to vasal status meant that resistance to Ottoman rule in the Balkans was confined to a few scattered fortresses and the Venetian possesions in Greece and along the Adriatic coast.
  • 1461

    Ottomans Conquer Trebizond, Last Byzantine Remnant

    Ottomans conquer Empire of Trebizond, a breakaway Byzantine region
  • 1461

    Trebizond Falls to Ottomans

    Ottomans captured the Byzantine stronghold of Trebizond
  • Period: 1464 to

    Songhai Empire

    Under Sonni Ali (1462 - 1591), Songhai conquered most of Mali and established a new capital at Gao. The gold fields of the Niger River were integral to the empire's wealth and power. At its height, the rulers stationed a 200,000-strong army in the provinces to ensure trade was safe and secure.
  • Period: 1467 to 1477

    The Onin War

    In 1467, the Ashikaga shogun, Yoshimasa, abdicated power, having failed to quell civil unrest in the wake of a famine. While the Yamana clan supported his chosen heir, the Hosokawa family promoted a rival claimant, and the dispute escalated into a brutal war. Fighting spread beyond the capital, Kyoto, eroding the shogun's power, and ended with the Yamana submitting in 1477.
  • Period: 1469 to 1492

    Reconquest of Granada

    The 14th and early 15th centuries saw a lull in the Reconquista, but the union of Aragon and Castile created by the marriage of Ferdinand II and Isabella I in 1469 gave it new impetus. Their armies nibbled away at the emirate of Granada, capturing Malaga in 1487. Finally, they laid seige to Granada, which resisted for 18 months before its ruler, Boabdil, surrendered and went into exile.
  • 1470

    Incas Conquer Chan Chan

    Incas conquered the Chimu capital Chan Chan and brought back many craftsmen to work on Inca constructions in Cuzco
  • 1471

    Dai Viet Conquers Champa Capital

    Dai Viet forces capture the Champa capital Vijaya
  • 1471

    Vijaya's Capture Marks End of Champa Era

    Vijaya was captured by the Vietnamese, marking the end of the Champa kingdom
  • 1471

    Inca Conquest of Pachacamac

    The sacred Huari site of Pachacamac was taken over by the Incas. A temple dedicated to the Inca sun deity was built.
  • Period: 1471 to 1525

    Expanding South

    Under Tupac Yupanqui (1471 - 1493) and Huaya Capac (1493 - 1525), the Inca completed the conquest of Ecuador and pushed far south into modern Chile. With the prospect of sharing the plunder won in subsequent conquests, male captives often became Inca soldiers, which further strengthened Inca dominance. At its height, the Inca Empire ruled as many as 12 million people.
  • 1475

    Crimea Falls Under Ottoman Sway

    Khanate of the Crimea became an Ottoman tributary state
  • 1480

    Muscovy Throws Off Mongol Yoke Under Ivan III

    Ivan III of Russia establishes the independence of Muscovy from the Mongols
  • 1480

    Piero della Francesca: Illuminating the Art of Perspective

    Italian painter Piero della Francesca wrote a treatise on visual perspective.
  • 1482

    Dutch Capture Portuguese Fort

    Portugal established a fort; taken over by the Dutch in 1637
  • Period: 1482 to

    European Colonies in Africa

    The permanent European presence in sub-Saharan Africa began in 1482 with the Portuguese erecting the Elmina Castle (later a British possession) in modern Ghana, initially for trading gold. Further outposts were added at Kilwa, Mozambique, and Luanda, Angola. As the focus shifted to the slave trade, the British, French, and Dutch began setting up posts along the African coastline. The Dutch took control of the Portuguese slave trading port at Delagoa Bay from 1721 - 1730.
  • 1486

    Aztecs Conquer Soconusco for Cacao Tribute

    The Aztecs invaded the cacao-rich Soconusco region and secured cacao tributes to the capital
  • 1488

    Dias Rounds Cape of Good Hope

    Bartolomeu Dias rounds Cape of Good Hope
  • 1488

    Bartolomeu Dias: First European to Round Africa's Southern Tip

    Portuguese navigator Bartolomeu Dias sails around the southern tip of Africa
  • Period: 1488 to 1512

    The Circumnavigation of Africa

    By 1488, the Portuguese exploration of Africa's coast had reached the southernmost tip of the continent, when Bartolomeu Dias rounded it and entered the Indian Ocean. In 1497 - 1498 Vasco da Gama went even further, succeeding in opening up a direct trade route to Asia, by sailing up Africa's east coast and then across to Calicut in India. Before long the Portuguese had attained the sources of spices - the most valuable of luxury goods - reaching Malacca in 1509 and the Moluccas in 1512.
  • Period: 1491 to 1492

    Granada Falls to Catholic Monarchs

    Granada is beseiged and falls to Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile
  • 1492

    Jewish Communities Flee to North Africa

    Expulsion of Jews pushes communities to North Africa
  • 1492

    Jews Flee Spain for North Africa and the East

    Many Jews expelled from Spain settle in North Africa and the eastern Mediterranean
  • 1492

    Columbus Lands in the Caribbean

    Christopher Colombus makes landfall in the Caribbean
  • 1492

    The Columbas Exchange: A Catastrophic Encounter

    Within 150 years of Columbus's landing in the Caribbean, around 80 - 95% of the native population in the Americas perished from new diseases first carried by Columbus's crew.
  • Period: 1492 to 1504

    The Voyages of Colombus

    In 1492 Genoses sea captain Christopher Colombus voyages across the Atlantic in search of a route to China. Colombus hugely underestimated the distance, so when he landed on 12 October 1492 in the Bahamas, he believed he had found "the Indies" (or East Asia). Three subsequent voyages explored the Caribbean and part of the South American coastline, but Colombus never accepted that he had found a new continent.
  • Period: 1492 to

    Sugar Cane

    Sugar cane was brought to the New World from southeast Asia via Europe. The labour-intensive crop thrived in Brazil and the Caribbean and by the 1560s Brazil was the main exporter of sugar to Europe. With local populations reduced by disease, Spanish and Portuguese colonizers transported around 800,000 African slaves to work on sugar plantations by 1650.
  • Period: 1492 to

    New Diseases Reach America

    Old World diseases including diphtheria, measles, influenza, and smallpox were borne to the Americas by infected Spanish colonists. Between 1520 and 1600, a series of epidemics in both Mexico and Peru killed 90 per cent of the native population. In Europe, syphilis is thought to have been carried back from the New World by Columbus's crew.
  • Period: 1493 to

    Horses

    First domesticated in central Asia between 4000 BCE and 2000 BCE, horses later spread to Europe. They were re-introduced to the Americas in the late 15th century, although they did not become widespread until the 17th century. The Plains Indians were among the first people to obtain and use horses. Colonists relied on the animal's mobility in wars against local populations.
  • 1495

    Syphilis First Strikes French Troops in Naples

    The first recorded outbreak of syphilis occurred among French troops besieging Naples
  • 1495

    Aldine Press Unveils Aristotle's Masterpieces in Greek

    Aldine Press in Venice publishes the complete works of Aristotle in Greek
  • 1497

    Da Gama's Unwelcome Arrival in India

    Da Gama reaches India, but the hostility of the local sultan means he did not establish trading relations
  • Period: 1497 to

    The Northwest Passage

    The first expedition commissioned by England to search for a "Northwest Passage" was John Cabot's, in 1497, which discovered Newfoundland. Martin Frobisher followed, reaching Baffin Island in 1576, and Henry Hudson's expedition found Hudson Bay in 1610. These voyages marked the beginnings of British colonization in America.
  • 1498

    Da Gama Completes Epic Voyage to Calicut

    Vasco ga Game reaches Calicut after sailing across the Indian Ocean
  • Period: 1499 to

    The Spice Islands

    Many of the spices sought by Europeans were found only in the Moluccas. After the discovery of the maritime route to India in 1499, European traders flocked to the islands determined to gain access to spices, the most popular of which could yield a 1,000 per cent profit margin in European markets. The Dutch ousted the Portuguese to gain control of the spice trade in the Moluccas in 1602.
  • 1500

    Porto Seguro Emerges as Cabral's Landing Site

    Porto Seguro becomes the possible landfall of Pedro Alvares Cabral
  • Period: 1500 to 1531

    The Exploration of Brazil

    In 1500, Pedro Alvaro Cabral, who was leading a Portuguese expedition to India, sailed too far westward into the Atlantic and made landfall on the coast of Brazil. Some claimed that this apparent accident had been deliberate, but it helped the Portuguese crown lay claim over a portion of Brazil. Portugal then established a settlement at Sao Vicente in 1531, and its South American empire expanded to the whole of Brazil.
  • Period: 1500 to 1531

    The Portuguese in Brazil

    Although Pedro Alvares Cabral claimed Brazil for Portugal in 1500, there were no rich empires to conquer and few commodities that were worth trading. Initially, the territory was leased to a consortium of Lisbon merchants, before fear of encroachment by the French in the 1520s led to the establishment of the first permanent settlement at Sao Vicente in 1531.
  • Period: 1500 to

    Rice

    Rice was introduced to Europe between the 8th and 10th centuries, having first been domesticated in Asia approximately 10,000 years ago. It was also separately domesticated in Africa around 3,000 years ago. Rice from both continents was taken to the Americas by European explorers in the early 16th century, and the crop reached South Carolina, North America, by 1690.
  • Period: 1500 to

    Animals Embark on a New World Adventure

    Explorers bring a number of domesticated animals with them, including horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs.
  • Period: 1500 to

    Labour for the New World

    Europe turned to Africa to supply hard labour to work in the mines and plantations of the New World colonies. Slave traders forcibly captured potential workers, including women and children, by the thousands and marched them to fortified centres - called factories - on the coast, before placing them on ships bound for the New World.
  • Period: 1500 to

    The Atlantic Slave Trade Develops

    Voyages direct from Africa to the New World started as early as 1500. Initially, the slaves were sent to the Caribbean; only later did they go to Brazil. By 1640, two distinct branches of the trans-Atlantic slave trade (TAST) had developed, following the prevailing winds and currents: the northern one to the Caribbean and mainland Spanish America; and the southern one to Brazil.
  • Period: 1500 to

    Caribbean Gold Rush Fuels Transatlantic Slave Trade

    Until the mid-16th century, most African slaves were sent to the Caribbean colonies, especially the gold mines of Hispaniola
  • 1502

    Gil Vicente: The Father of Portuguese Theater

    Portuguese playwright Gil Vicente puts on the first performances of vernacular plays in verse form
  • 1504

    Moldavia Embarks on Ottoman Tributary Status

    Moldavia becomes an Ottoman tributary state
  • Period: 1504 to 1530

    The Origin of the Mughals

    Babur seized Kabul in 1504 and used the city as a base to attack the Lodi Sultanate of Delhi. His victory at Panipat in 1526 brought northwestern India under control. He made further conquests, defeating the Raiput confederacy and the Afghans. By 1530, the empire extended from Kabul in the north to Patna in the east.
  • 1505

    Francisco de Almeida: First Viceroy of Portuguese India

    Francisco de Almeida became the first viceroy of Portuguese India
  • Period: 1506 to

    The Ming in Decline

    Emperor Zhengde (r.1506 - 1521) adopted Confucianism - a system of ethics based on mutual responsibility. His successor Jianjing (r.1521 - 1567), however, favoured the more carefree, nature-based teachings of Daoism. In reaction, he left the governing to court officials and ignored the problem of Japanese pirate raids, devoting himself to sporting pastimes and hosting lavish Daoist ceremonies. Ming authority became even more ineffectual under Emperor Wanli (e.1573 - 1620).
  • 1509

    Portuguese Triumph in Calicut

    Portuguese defeated the Zamorin of Calicut and conquered the city
  • Period: 1509 to 1511

    Raphael's Stanza della Segnatura: A Renaissance Masterpiece

    Raphael produces frescoes for the Vatican Stanza della Segnatura
  • 1510

    Bramante's Tempietto: A Renaissance Revival of Classical Architecture

    Donato Bramante built the Tempietto at Rome, based on classical temple architecture.
  • 1510

    Portugal Seizes Goa

    Portugal gains control of Goa
  • 1511

    Portuguese Explorers Expand Spice Trade Reach

    The Portuguese seized a base at Malacca, and Portuguese explorer Antonio de Abreu reached the Banda Islands, a part of the Spice Islands.
  • Period: 1511 to 1575

    The Portuguese In East Asia

    The Portuguese trading empire asserted its dominance in Asia with the seizure of Goa in India in 1510. Two years later, explorer Francisco Serrao reached Hitu island in the Moluccas. He formed ties with the local rulers, allowing the Portuguese to erect posts at Ternate and Ambonia. Portugal effectively controlled the Spice Islands until the Dutch arrived in the early 1600s.
  • Period: 1512 to 1520

    Selim Claims the Caliphate

    Sultan Selim I (r.1512 - 1520) began his conquest of Mamluk-ruled Syria and Egypt in 1516. His army swept away the resistance at Aleppo and Damascus and proclaimed victory by hanging the Mamluk caliph at the Gates of Cairo (1517). By gaining guardianship of the Islamic holy cities of Medina and Mecca, the Ottomans effectively became the fourth major Caliphate after the Rashiduns, Umayyads, and Abbasids.
  • Period: 1513 to 1540

    Spanish Explorers in North America

    Christopher Columbus was soon followed by other Spanish explorers. In 1513 Juan Ponce de Leon landed in Florida and 4 years later Fransico Hernandez de Cordoba had sighted Mexico's Yucatan peninsula. The pace of exploration quickened after Hernan Cortes's conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1519 - 1521, allowing expeditions deep into the American southwest in the 1540s
  • Period: 1515 to

    Fall of Hormuz to Portugal

    The Persian city of Hormuz is occupied by Portugal
  • 1516

    Portuguese Sugar Plantations in Pernambuco

    Portuguese established sugar plantations in the Pernambuco area
  • 1517

    Reformation Begins with Luther's 95 Theses

    Martin Luther posts his '95 Theses' at Whittenberg, beginning the Reformation
  • 1517

    Machiavelli's Discourses on Republican Power

    Niccolo Machiavelli publishes his 'Discourses on Livy', an examination of political power in a republic
  • 1517

    Ottoman Conquest Topples Mamluk Sultanate

    Ottoman conquest of Cairo signals the collapse of the Mamluk Sultanate - in control of Egypt and Syria since 1250
  • 1517

    Sharif Barakat Pledges Allegiance to Ottoman Caliph

    Following the Ottoman victory over the Mamluk Sultanate, Sharif Barakat of Mecca acknowledged Selim I as Caliph
  • Period: 1517 to 1521

    The Ninety-Five Theses

    Martin Luther pinned his Ninety-five Theses, to the door of Wittenberg Castle Church in October 1517. The document listed 95 complaints against the Church and adopted new theological positions on topics such as salvation and the interruption of communion. The tract caused a huge stir throughout Europe and led to his excommunication by the Catholic Church in 1521.
  • 1519

    Cortés Enters Tenochtitlan

    Cortes first enters Tenochtitlan
  • 1519

    Cortés Embarks on New World Conquest

    Hernan Cortes Leaves Cuba
  • 1519

    Cortes Forges Alliance at Cempoala

    Hernan Cortes Cempoala in Tabasco
  • 1519

    Renaissance Splendor: Francis I Commissions Château de Chambord

    Francis I of France ordered the construction of the Chateau de Chambord in Renaissance style.
  • Period: 1519 to 1580

    Circumnavigating the Globe

    In 1519 Ferdinand Magellan led an expedition looking for the sea route to the Indies. They passed through the Strait of Magellan in October 1520 and reached the Philippines 5 months later. There, Magellan was killed in a battle with a local ruler. Under Juan Sebastian Elcano, the expedition returned to Spain in September 1522. A circumnavigation of the globe was not repeated until the Englishman Francis Drake's expedition in 1577 - 1580.
  • Period: 1519 to 1524

    Cortes and Mexico

    The expedition of Hernan Cortes to Mexico in 1519 overwhelmed the rich Aztec empire within three years. the centralized nature of the empire meant that the Spanish acquired all of its resources and tribute-bearing provinces, providing them with a base from which to move southwards into the Yucatan Peninsula in 1524.
  • 1520

    Cortes Emerges Victorious in Conquistador Rivalry

    Cortes defeats fellow conquistador Panfilo de Narvaez
  • 1520

    Aztec Capital Boasts Pre-Columbian America's Largest Population

    The Aztec capital is the largest city in pre-Columbian America with a population of at least 300,000.
  • Period: 1520 to 1566

    Suleyman the Magnificent

    Suleyman I, better known as Suleyman the Magnificent (r.1520 - 1566), ruled the empire during the height of its power. In 1526, he routed the Hungarians at Mohacs, reducing the country to a vassal state. The Austrian Habsburg ruler Ferdinand I attempted to recapture the state, but the Ottomans struck back by besieging Vienna in 1529. Suleyman failed to take the Habsburg city, but he remained overlord of Hungary.
  • Period: 1520 to 1521

    Cortés Reclaims Tenochtitlan

    Cortes returns to Tenochtitlan and finally completes the recapture
  • 1521

    Magellan Killed in the Philippines

    Magellan killed in a Skirmish in the Philippines
  • 1521

    Fall of the Aztec Empire

    Hernan Cortes completes the conquest of the Aztec Empire
  • 1521

    Luther Defies Diet, Flees into Hiding

    Imperial Diet orders Luther to recant; Luther's refusal forces him to go into hiding
  • 1521

    Spanish Explorers Bring New World Foods to Southeast Asia

    Spanish explorers brought foods such as tomatoes and maize from Central America with them when they colonised the Philippines. From here, these new World foods spread throughout Southeast Asia
  • 1522

    Elcano Completes Historic Circumnavigation

    Elcano reaches Spain with 18 survivors of the circumnavigation
  • 1522

    Portuguese Establish Trading Post in Madras

    Portuguese arrived in Madras and built a trading port
  • Period: 1522 to 1571

    Ottomans' Naval Warfare

    In 1522, the Ottoman navy expelled the Knights of St John (a Crusader army) from Rhoads, and in 1529, captured Algiers. Following the Ottoman assault on Cyprus in 1570, European powers formed the Holy League. A year later, the League's fleet, led by Don Juan of Austria, crushed the Ottomans at Lepanto, ending Ottoman naval dominance in the eastern Mediterranean.
  • Period: 1523 to 1544

    The Reformation in Sweden

    As Lutheran ideas spread across Sweden, King Gustavus Vasa (r.1523 - 1560) sought to establish a national church, still in communion with the papacy. However, following an assembly led by reformer Olavus Petri at Vasteras in 1527, Catholic Church property was seized in 1544. Sweden was officially declared a Protestant nation.
  • 1525

    Santa Maria de Bogona: Pioneering Slave Ship to Hispaniola

    Portugal's 'Santa Maria de Bogona' is the first-known named ship to transport slaves directly from Africa to the New World (from Sao Tome to Hispaniola)
  • 1526

    Babur Founds the Mughal Empire in Northern India

    Babur established the Mughal Empire in northern India
  • 1526

    Enslaved Africans are taken to Brazil

    Portuguese traders transported slaves from Africa to Brazil to work on plantations. The slave trade quickly became a key part of the Columbian Exchange.
  • 1526

    Mughal Cavalry Triumphs in Delhi

    Superior Mughal cavalry defeats Ibrahim Lodi, the last sultan of Delhi
  • Period: 1526 to 1571

    Agra: Jewel of the Mughal Empire

    Agra becomes the Mughal capital
  • 1527

    The Founding of Buenos Aires

    Spanish colony established in Buenos Aires
  • 1527

    Monastery Disembowments Weaken Catholic Church

    Church synod disendows monasteries, weakening the Catholic Church
  • Period: 1527 to

    The Conquest of the Maya

    The Maya of the Yucatan Peninsula was politically fragmented, and so the Spanish conquistadors had to reduce each Maya city-state individually. Francisco de Montejo began the process in 1527, but he only made significant progress in the 1540s. The last Maya city, Tayasal, finally fell to the Spanish in 1697.
  • Period: 1527 to 1572

    Pizarro, Peru, and Inca Resistance

    The Inca empire was already weak from civil war when Francisco Pizarro's small Spanish expedition arrived. He seized the Inca capital at Cuzco, effectively taking control of the whole empire. Unlike the Aztecs, the Inca chose a new ruler and resisted until the fall of their last stronghold, Vilcabamba, in 1572.
  • Period: 1528 to

    Tobacco

    Traditionally used by Native Americans in spiritual ceremonies, tobacco was taken back to Europe by Spanish explorers in 1528. There, the addictive substance became popular, and colonists used this to fund further expansion in North America. From about 1610, British colonists established tobacco plantations along North America's eastern coast. From the early 1700s, most tobacco plantations maximised their profit by utilizing African slaves.
  • Period: 1529 to

    The Spanish in the Pacific

    The 1529 Treaty of Zaragoza resulted in Spain ceding control of the Spice Islands to Portugal. The Spanish, however, landed in the Philippines in 1565 and by 1572, a galleon sailed annually from Manila, carrying silver, which was exchanged with Chinese traders for silk and porcelain.
  • Period: 1530 to 1555

    Catholic-Protestant Conflict

    In 1530, the Holy Roman Empire Charles V ordered all Protestant churches to abandon their reforms, sparking a series of wars in the 1540s and the 1550s. Eventually, peace was brokered in 1555 at Augsburg, Germany, with the Catholic Church agreeing to accept Protestantism but only in those German states that had already adopted the religion.
  • Period: 1530 to

    Rio de Janeiro: The World's Busiest Slave Port

    1.7 million slaves arrive at Rio de Janeiro - the world's busiest slave port
  • Period: 1531 to 1556

    Setbacks under Humayun

    Babar's son, Humayun, was forced to share power with his four brothers. In 1539 Sher Shah Suri, a former Lodi commander, deposed Humayun and took the throne in Delhi. Humayun campaigned for a decade and with Persian help, expelled Sher Shah. He died in an accident a year later - before he could regain all the land lost to Sher Shah.
  • Period: 1531 to 1534

    The Church of England

    The Reformation made little headway in England until King Henry VIII (r.1509 - 1547) quarrelled with the Papacy over his decision to divorce (an act forbidden by Catholic canon law) his wife. Katherine or Aragon. He rejected papal supremacy and established in 1534, through the Act of Supremacy, the Church of England and introduced Protestantism to England.
  • 1532

    Rabelais's Comic Masterpiece: Gargantua and Pantagruel

    French author Francois Rabalais wrote the comic novel 'La vie de Gargantua et de Pantagruel' ("The Life of Gargantua and Pantagruel").
  • 1534

    Safavids Flee Baghdad as Ottomans Advance

    Ottoman invasion forced the Safavid government to flee the city of Baghdad.
  • Period: 1534 to

    The Exploration of Canada

    In 1534 Jacques Cartier of France explored the Gulf of St Lawrence, and on a subsequent expedition in 1535 - 1546, he reached the site of present-day Montreal. Samuel de Champlain extended French knowledge of Canada westwards from 1600, founding the first French settlement at Port-Royal in 1605. By 1607 the French had mapped the whole Atlantic coastline from Cape Cod to Cape Breton.
  • Period: 1534 to

    Religious Conflict in France

    Religious wars initially broke out in 1534 after King Francis I (r.1515 - 1537) tried to repress Protestantism on French soil. On St Bartholomew's Day in 1572, thousands of Protestants, known as Huguenots, were massacred in Paris. In 1598, Henri IV (r.1589 - 1610), a former Huguenot, issued the Edict of Nantes, which tolerated Protestantism in France. Protestants also faced persecution in London and Rome.
  • 1535

    San Luis Potosi: Capital of New Spain

    San Luis Potosi is the Capital of the Viceroyalty of New Spain
  • 1535

    Mexico City: The Capital of New Spain

    The Spanish established the capital of the Viceroyalty of New Spain at Mexico City, during their conquest of South America
  • Period: 1535 to 1546

    Cartier Charts the St. Lawrence

    Cartier sails down the St Lawrence as far as present-day Montreal.
  • Period: 1535 to

    Spanish Colonial Administration

    In 1535, a viceroyalty of New Spain was set up - based in Mexico City - to govern the Spanish territories in Central America. A Viceroyalty of Peru was established in 1543, based in Lima. Spanish kings issued decrees regarding their governance, and by 1596 some 3,500 of these had accumulated.
  • 1536

    Calvin Publishes Institutes of the Christian Religion

    Protestant reformer John Calvin published his 'institutes of the Christian Religion'
  • Period: 1539 to 1572

    Vilcabamba: The Last Bastion of the Inca Empire

    Vilcabamba was the last capital of the Inca empire after the Spanish conquest of Cuzco
  • Period: 1540 to

    Calvinism

    The French theologian John Calvin established a protestant community in Geneva in the 1540s. His movement propounded a theology more radical than that of Luther, emphasizing God's sovereignty and the doctrine of predestination. Clavinsm spread rapidly, in France, the German states, the Netherlands, Scotland, and many parts of central Europe.
  • 1541

    Francisco Pizarro Assassinated

    Fransico Pizzaro was assassinated during the civil war with followers of fellow conquistador Diego de Almagro
  • 1541

    Hungary Under Ottoman Rule

    Hungary was annexed by the Ottomans
  • 1542

    Portuguese Traders Reach Tanegashima

    The first Portuguese trading mission landed in Tanegashima
  • Period: 1542 to

    Foreign Trade

    Europeans began trading with Japan after the Portuguese landed on Tanegashima, south of Kyushu, in 1542. The Dutch set up a trading post in Hirado in 1607. However, after a pro-Catholic uprising in Shamabara in 1637, the Tokugawa Shogunate expelled the Portuguese and restricted the Dutch to the Island of Dejima, before stopping all trade with Europe.
  • 1543

    Lima: The Capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru

    The capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru was established in Lima
  • 1545

    Silver Bonanza Unearthed Near Potosi and La Plata

    Silver deposits discovered just outside of Potosi and La Plata
  • 1545

    Council of Trent Launches Catholic Counter-Reformation

    The First Session of Catholic Church Council opens the Counter-Reformation
  • Period: 1545 to

    Silver From Potosi

    The new American colonies were a drain on Spain, but the discovery of rich silver deposits at Potosi in Peru in 1545 and at Zacetacas in Mexico in 1546 revolutionalized Spanish colonial economics. Fleets crossed the Atlantic regularly back to Spain, carrying two-fifths of the silver mined that was due to the Spanish crown, funding wars and other ventures.
  • Period: 1545 to 1563

    The Counter-Reformation

    The three sessions held by the General Council of Trent between 1545 and 1563 were the high point of the Catholic Reformation. The Church hierarchy upheld papal supremacy and core Catholic doctrines but reformed the education of the clergy and banned abuses such as the sale of Indulgences - where a penitent was able to gain absolution for a monetary contribution.
  • 1549

    Xavier Embarks on Japan Mission

    Jesuit Francis Xavier begins his mission to Japan
  • 1550

    Cassava's Journey to Africa

    Portuguese traders introduced cassava to Africa from Brazil
  • 1550

    Rise of Tobacco in East Asia Fuels Local Pipe Production

    Tobacco pipes are made locally as tobacco use becomes widespread throughout eastern Asia
  • 1552

    Ottomans Seize Portuguese Outpost in Muscat

    The Ottoman fleet under Admiral Piri Reis plunders Portuguese outpost in Muscat
  • 1555

    Augsburg Treaty Brings Respite from Religious Strife

    The Peace of Augsburg treaty brought temporary halt to religious wars that have spread across Europe
  • 1555

    Peace of Augsburg: Whose Realm, His Religion

    Peace of Augsburg determines that religion in German states be determined by their ruling power
  • 1555

    Jesuits Arrive in China

    the first Jesuit mission reached Chinese mainland
  • 1555

    Shah Suri Falls, Humayun Rises in North India

    Humayun defeats Shah Suri and takes North India
  • Period: 1556 to

    The Empire under Akbar

    Fourteen-years old Akbar came to power after the death of his father, Humayun. Akbar not only restored the Mughal Empire's old boundaries but also expanded the empire through conquests, annexing Afghanistan, Kashmir, Sind, Gujarat, and Bengal, and pushing south into the Deccan. By abolishing the "jiziya" tax on non-Muslims, he won the acceptance of the Hindu territories.
  • 1557

    Portuguese Establish Trading Post in Macao

    Portuguese set up a trading base in Macao
  • 1557

    Portugal Establishes Macao Outpost with Controlled Trade

    Portugal acquires a base at Macao, but trade is strictly controlled
  • 1559

    John Knox Returns to Scotland, Sparking Reformation

    Calvinist reformer John Knox returns to Scotland, beginning the Reformation there
  • 1560

    Oda Nobunaga Defeats Imagawa Yoshitomo

    Odo Nobunaga defeats Imagawa Yoshitomo to secure the Owari domain
  • Period: 1560 to 1582

    Campaigns of Oda Nobunaga

    In 1560, Oda Nobunaga foiled the attack on his domain by rival daimyo Imagawa Yoshimoto. He then amassed allies and set out to win control of Japan. By 1575, he had subdued his rivals and clamped down on armed militia based around monasteries. Nobunaga was close to securing his rule in Japan, but a disaffected lieutenant forced Nobunaga to commit suicide in 1582.
  • 1565

    Ottomans Fail to Conquer Malta

    A 3-month Ottoman siege failed to dislodge the Crusader army, the Knights of St John in Malta
  • Period: 1565 to

    The Spanish in Florida

    Spain was the first to establish a European settlement in North America - St Augustine, Florida, in 1565. Their initial colonial efforts had been focused on Mexico and Peru, where there was gold to acquire and empires to conquer. The Spanish were penned into Florida by the growth of English colonies to the north and the arrival of the French in New Orleans to the west in 1718.
  • Period: 1566 to

    Governing the Empire

    The capture of Tunis in 1574 sealed the Ottoman domination of the eastern and central Maghreb. The Ottomans also invaded the western frontier of the Safavid Empire, taking several cities, including Derbent (1578) and Baku (1583) in the north. After the reign of Suleyman I, power struggles between the viziers and the harem (the sultan's personal household) challenged the sultan's authority and weakened the empire.
  • 1567

    Mughal Siege Artillery Triumphs at Fortress of Chittorgarh

    Akbar captures the Fortress of Chittorgarh with the use of siege artillery
  • 1570

    Potatoes: A Culinary Journey from South America to Europe

    Traders brought potatoes from South America to Spain, where they became a stable ingredient. Potatoes were also independently brought across to England between 1585 and 1590.
  • 1570

    European Traders Arrive in Nagasaki

    Nagasaki opens to European traders
  • Period: 1570 to

    Potatoes

    Indigenous to South America, the potato was first brought to Europe in the late 16th century. The potato was slow to spread across Europe, as many were suspicious of the new plant, but eventually, it was accepted. It played a key role in decreasing outbreaks of food shortages: King Frederick II of Prussia, for example, ordered large-scale potato cultivation following a famine in 1774.
  • 1571

    Manila's Spanish Transformation

    Spain built an outpost; within a century, Manila became home to 150 Spanish households
  • Period: 1571 to

    Akbar's Grand Capital: Fatehpur Sikri

    Built by Akbar, Fatehpur Sikri became the new capital of the Mughal empire
  • 1572

    St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre starts a civil war in France

    St Bartholomew's Day Massacre of Protestants aggravates religious civil war in France
  • Aug 24, 1572

    St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

    King Charles IX of France ordered St Bartholomew's Day massacre of Protestants
  • 1575

    Leiden University: Fostering Scientific and Technological Excellence

    Leiden University founded - educator of many world-leading practitioners in science and technology
  • 1575

    Nobunaga Lifts Siege, Saving Ieyasu's Shogunal Dreams

    Nobunaga breaks siege of Nagashino Castle by Takeda Katsuyori, relieving Tokugawa Ieyasu, the future shogun
  • 1579

    Drake's Possible Discovery of Vancouver

    Drake sails up the west coast of North America, possibly reaching Vancouver
  • 1579

    Seven Northern Provinces Unite Against Spain

    Seven northern provinces sign the Union of Utrecht, joining forces against Spanish rule
  • 1582

    Nobunaga dies at Honnō-ji Temple in Kyoto

    Nobuanga dies at Honnoji Temple in Kyoto after siege of Akechi Mitsuhide
  • Period: 1582 to

    Hideyoshi takes Control

    In the chaos that ensued following Nobunaga's death, his former general Toyotomi Hideyoshi took up arms against rival daimyos. Starting with a victory over the Shibata Katsuie at Shizugatake in 1583, he defeated his rivals and, in 1587, became Japan's leader. He ordered the Great Sword Hunt, de-militarizing the countryside and restricting the samurai to towns. His invasion of Korea in 1592 began a 6-year war that ended in failure.

  • Hideyoshi's Victory Leads to Shibata's Demise

    Hideyoshi defeats Shibata Katsuie, who commits suicide

  • Mughals Conquer First Deccan Sultanate

    The first Deccan sultanate to come under Mughal ruler
  • Period: to

    Lahore: The Mughal Capital Under Akbar

    Lahore was the Mughal capital during the second half of Akbar's reign

  • Roanoke: A Colony That Vanished into Thin Air

    The First English colony was founded by Walter Raleigh, but disappeared by 1590

  • Akbar Conquers Kashmir

    Akbar accepts the surrender of Yaqub Chak, ruler of Kashmir
  • Period: to

    The Dutch in Africa

    Dutch voyages to West Africa began around 1592. Unsuccessful attempts to seize Elmina, which they finally took in 1637, led to the establishment of Fort Nassau in 1612 - and served as the capital of the Dutch Gold Coast. By the 1640s, the Dutch were threatening the Portuguese base in Angola, and in 1652 an outpost was set up at Cape Town, at the southern tip of Africa. Cape Town received significant numbers of Dutch settlers and remained in Dutch hands until 1814.

  • The Augsburg Confession Comes to Sweden

    Swedish Church becomes Lutheran and adopts the Augsburg Confession of Faith

  • Dutch Spice Voyage Yields 400% Profit

    The first Dutch fleet to the Spice Islands returns with a profit of 400 per cent
  • Period: to

    A Monumental Achievement: Taj Mahal Completed in 1653

    Construction of the Taj Mahal was completed in 1653
  • Period: to

    Rise of Tokugawa

    Hideyoshi died in 1598, leaving behind a sole heir who was only 5 years old. The resulting power vacuum prompted Hideyoshi's allies to rally around the banner of fellow ally Tokugawa Ieyasu. In 1600, Ieyasu's Eastern Army defeated rival Ishida Mitsunari's Western Army at Sekigahara, and around 3 years later, Ieyasu became shogun and founded the Tokugawa shogunate.

  • Sekigahara: The Battle That Forged a Nation

    Tokugawa Ieyasu wins the Battle of Sekigehara to complete the reunification of Japan

  • William Adams: The First European Samurai

    English sailor William Adams reaches Japan and is the first European to become a samurai

  • Ieyasu's Victory at Sekigahara

    Tokugawa Ieyasu defeats Ishida Mitsunari to become the shogun of Japan

  • Ieyasu Establishes Edo as Tokugawa Capital

    Ieyasu makes Edo Tokugawa capital
  • Period: to

    The Iroquois Confederacy

    In 1722, the Tuscarora tribe, displaced from the Carolinas by European settlement, became the sixth member of a League of Nations known as the Iroquois Confederacy, located in upper New York state. The Iroquois successfully defended their territory until 1779 when an American force carried out a systematic destruction of Iroquois settlement and crops.
  • Period: to

    2,500 Spanish Migrants Arrive Annually

    Spanish migrants arrive in North America at a rate of 2,500 migrants per year
  • Period: to

    North America's British Population Booms

    British migrants arrive in North America at a rate of 2,000 per year
  • Period: to

    Steady Stream of French Migrants Arrives

    French migrants arrive in North America at a rate of 100 per year
  • Period: to

    Yearly Influx of 1,500 Slaves into British Territories

    About 1,500 slaves were imported per year to British territories in the Caribbean and in North America
  • Period: to

    The British in India

    Founded in 1600, the investor-funded British East India Company allowed Britain to open its first trading post in India at Surat (1613). With the acquisition of Calcutta, Britain ousted its French rival and secured British presence in Bengal. This formed the main bridgehead for its expansion throughout India in the 18th century.
  • Period: to

    The Conquest of Siberia

    Russia attempted to find a sea passage from the Arctic to the Pacific Ocean but failed. Instead, it conquered Siberia to gain access to the Pacific coast and control its land, minerals, and fur trade. Military forays, massacres, and diseases subdued indigenous peoples. By 1650, Russia colonized north Asia, then established colonies in Alaska (1784) and California (1812).
  • Period: to

    The Dutch Economy and Politics

    The need to finance foreign trading expeditions led to the foundation of the Amsterdam Stock Exchange in 1602 and the Bank of Amsterdam in 1609. Both were able to provide investment funds and loans at much lower interest rates than foreign competitors. Statesmen such as Johan van Oldenbarnevelt (1547 - 1619) and Johan de Witt (1625 - 1672) provided the able leadership and political stability for the new United Provinces.
  • Period: to

    The Dutch East India Company

    The VOC was established in 1602, financed by 6.5 million florins put in by investors and governed by a board of 17 directors in Amsterdam. The establishment of a base in Java in 1619 and the forceful direction of the VOC's Governor-General in the East Indies enables it to marginalize the Portuguese in the Spice Islands and dominate the Indonesian archipelago until its dissolution in 1799.
  • Period: to

    Dutch Voc Exert Control

    Founded in 602, the Dutch East India Company or VOC (Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie), financed trading operations throughout Southeast Asia. The VOC reached the Spice Islands in 1602 and dominated the spice trade for the next two centuries, stamping out periodic threats posed by the Portuguese, British, and native Bandanese. The company was nationalized in 1796.

  • Dutch Fort Secures Textile Trade Dominance

    Dutch established fort helping them to monopolize textiles trade

  • Dutch Fort Conquest Establishes Spice Islands Dominance

    Fort captured from Portugal, developing Dutch dominance in the Spice Islands
  • Period: to

    New France

    The French established a settlement at Port Royal in 1605 and then at Quebec (within the Canadian colony - territory along the St Lawrence River) in 1608. When Quebec fell to the English in 1629 - 1632, Scots founded the colony of Nova Scotia. The French had also claimed land along the Mississippi and named it Louisiana. France's North American colonies were known, as a whole, as New France.
  • Period: to

    The Dutch in Australia and New Zealand

    After being the first Europeans to sight Australia's coastline in 1606, the Dutch extensively surveyed its west and north coasts. Willem Janszoon made the first landfall in 1606. In 1642 Abel Tasman sighted Van Diemen's land (Tasmania) and claimed it for the Netherlands. The Dutch made no attempts to establish a colony in Australia.

  • Jamestown: America's First Permanent English Colony

    Jamestown, the first permanent English colony in the America, is founded

  • Dutch Take Control of the Spice Trade

    VOC receives a monopoly of the close trade in the Moluccas Islands, known as the Spice Islands

  • Dutch East India Company Establishes Base in Moluccas

    The Dutch East India Company set up a base on Ternate in the Moluccas
  • Period: to

    Trading Colonies

    British trading colonies began profiting after 1617 once they ventured into tobacco farming. They also found viable commodities in the exploration of furs and fisheries in the north. The Crown sought to control this trade and passed a series of laws forbidding the American colonies from trading with anyone but England. However, the laws inflamed the hostiles of American colonists and eventually sowed the seeds of revolution.

  • Quebec: A French City Tested by English Might

    Quebec was Founded by the French; occupied by the English Canad Company in 1629 - 1632; and attacked again by the English in 1690

  • Jesuits' Claim of Mass Conversion in Japan

    Jesuits claim to have converted 212,000 Japanese to Christianity

  • Dutch Occupation of Principe

    Principe occupied by the Dutch

  • East India Company Sets Up Shop in Surat

    The English East India Company established a base at Surat, India

  • European Powers Establish Footholds in India

    Britain set up trading post; French establish a factory in Surat in 1668
  • Period: to

    Siege of Osaka

    Although Tokugawa Ieyasu had unified Japan by 1603, the Toyotomi clan, led by Hideyoshi's son, Toyotomi Hideyori, prevented the shogun from assuming absolute control of Japan. In the winter of 1614, Ieyasu mounted a large-scale assault on the Toyotomi stronghold in Osaka. A series of bloody battles ensued, lasting 6 months, and ended with Toyotomi's defeat.

  • Roe Seeks Mughal Ties in Diplomatic Mission

    Sir Thomas Roe begins a diplomatic mission to the court of the Mughal emperor Janagir

  • Mughals Open Trade Doors to Dutch in Surat

    Mughals granted the Dutch rights to trade in Surat

  • Batavia: Rising from the Ashes of Jakarta

    Dutch destroyed the town of Jakarta and builds the VOC headquarters under the name Batavia

  • The Arrival of the English

    In December 1620, nearly 100 English settlers, aboard the 'Mayflower', reached American shores seeking religious freedom and founded a settlement in Plymouth. Many perished during a difficult first winter, but the settlement survived with help from the Mashpee Wampanoag tribe. Over subsequent decades, more migrants arrived from Britain to colonize the eastern seaboard.
  • Period: to

    The Collapse of the Ming

    The last Ming emperor, Chongzhen, presided over a broken administration, failing to control the rise in banditry in the wake of a severe famine that afflicted northern China in 1628. Thereafter, peasant riots erupted in every province and gave rise to several rebel groups. When a rebellion, led by Li Zhicheng, stormed Beijing in April 1644, the beleaguered Emperor committed suicide.
  • Period: to

    European-Native American Conflicts

    Rising tensions between Europeans and local indigenous groups inevitably exploded into fighting, beginning with the First Anglo-Powhatan War around Jamestown in 1620. The most grave one was King Phillip's War, fought from 1675 to 1678 between Wampanoag and the English which resulted in the burning of many towns and the death of about 3,000 Native Americans.

  • Dutch establish factory in Gamron (Bandar Abbas)

    Dutch East India Company Establishes Factory in Gamron (Bandar Abbas)

  • Amboina Massacre: A Turning Point in the Spice Trade

    The massacre of English merchants on the island of Amboina (in modern Indonesia) led to English withdrawal from the Spice Islands.
  • Period: to

    Salvador Falls to the Dutch

    Salvador is captured by the Dutch
  • Period: to

    Colonies in the Caribbean

    Following in the footsteps of Spain - France and England both began to claim territory in the Caribbean Islands. Both nations established settlements on the Island of St Kitt's in 1624, and the English acquired Barbados in 1627. By the 1660s, around 40,000 European settlers had arrived in the Caribbean, many as indentured servants. However, by then, the slave trade was underway as thousands of Africans were shipped over to work on the new sugar plantations.

  • New Amsterdam: Capital of New Netherlands

    New Amsterdam is the capital of the New Netherlands region on the east coast of America
  • Period: to

    The Qing take China

    Following Li Zhicheng's attack on the Ming capital, Ming general Wu Sangui decisively shifted allegiance to the Manchus. He opened the Shanghai Pass, allowing Qing Prince Dorgon to pass the Great Wall, and they allied to defeat Li Zhicheng at the Battle of Shanghai Pass (27 May 1644). On 6 June, the Manchuts and Wu entered the capital and proclaimed the young Shunzhi Emperor as Emperor of China.

  • Shah Jahan's Coronation Marks the Dawn of Mughal India's Golden Age

    Shah Jahan is crowned emperor - the golden age of Mughal India begins
  • Period: to

    The Breakdown of Royal Authority

    Charles I faced financial difficulties due to the 1639-1642 "Bishops' War" in Scotland, leading to his attempt to impose a Church of England prayer book on the Scots. This sparked a decade-long dispute between the king and Parliament, leading to a failed attempt to force Parliament's hand. Fearing for his safety, the King fled north and raised the Royal Standard in Nottingham in August 1642.

  • Sweden Saves the Protestants in the Thirty Years War

    Sweden intervened in the Thirty Years War, turning the tide in favour of the Protestants
  • Period: to

    Recife: A Dutch Bastion in Brazil

    Recife is the capital of Dutch Brazil until it was recaptured by the Portuguese
  • Period: to

    Pernambuco Falls to the Dutch

    Pernambuco was attacked by the Dutch fleet and is occupied
  • Period: to

    Elmina Captured, Dutch Gold Coast Capitalized

    Elmina is captured and becomes the capital of the Dutch Gold Coast

  • Dutch Remain as Sole European Traders in Japan

    Portuguese and all other Europeans except the Dutch were expelled from Japan

  • Shimabara Uprising Crushed by Tokugawa Shogunate

    The uprising of Christian converts in Shimabara is suppressed by Tokugawa forces

  • Aberdeen Falls to Scottish Covenanters in Bishops' War

    Scottish Covenanters - Scots opposing the imposition of English church practises in Scotland - occupy Aberdeen during the Bishops' War

  • Scottish Covenanters Triumph at Newburn, Seizing Newcastle

    Scottish Covenanters occupy Newcastle after the Battle of Newburn

  • Charles I Summons the Long Parliament

    Charles I summons the Long Parliament

  • Dejima: The Dutch Window to Japan

    Dutch trading post was established in the Bay of Nagasaki, the single place of direct trade between Japan and the rest of the world during Japan's Edo Period

  • Dutch Traders Isolated on Dejima Island

    Dutch traders are confined to Dejima island
  • Period: to

    Dutch Conquest of Luanda

    Luanda was captured by the Dutch
  • Period: to

    Dutch Interlude in São Tomé

    Dutch occupied the island of Sao Tome before it returns to the Portuguese

  • First Civil War Begins

    The first, inconclusive engagement of the war took place at Edgehill in October 1642. Neither parliamentary nor royalist forces initially had effective leadership, and the King missed the chance of a thrust from Oxfordshire into London to put an early end to the war. Instead, the country was divided into a patchwork of areas supporting either side; in the West, Cornwall was initially a royalist and Somerset parliamentarian.

  • English Victory at Liscarrol Establishes Cork as Royalist Bastion

    The defeat of an Irish Confederate army by an English force at Liscarrol means Cork will be a royalist and Protestant stronghold.

  • Edgehill: The First Decisive Battle of the English Civil War

    The first pitched battle of the war ends conclusively in Edgehill

  • King Charles I's Failed Arrest

    Charles I enters the House of Commons Chamber to arrest opponents

  • Golden Bay Welcomes Its First European Visitor

    Dutch explorer Abel Tasman reaches New Zealand's Golden Bay
  • Period: to

    European Contact

    The first Europeans to make contact with the Maori people were explorers and later whalers and sealers. Seeking supplies, they brought guns and disease, which threw indigenous culture into chaos as armed groups imposed themselves on others, resulting in raids and "Musket Wars".

  • Royal Standard Raised, Civil War Begins

    King raises the Royal Standard, signalling the start of the Civil War

  • The Royalist Resurgence

    1643 was fragmentary fighting in which the royalists made strategic gains. Sir Ralph Hopton emerged victorious in the West County after the Battle of Braddock Down in January, and by July the royalists had captured Bristol. The north, too, fell largely into the hands of the royalists. Only in East Anglia, where Oliver Cromwell was in command, did Parliament hold its own.

  • The Fall of Bristol

    Bristol is Captured by Royalist forces

  • Hopton's Victory Opens Path to Devon

    Sir Ralph Hopton wins the Royalist victory, opening the way to Devon

  • Parliamentarians Reclaim Southern England

    Parliamentary forces repulse Royalists to regain initiative in southern England
  • Period: to

    Puritans and Presbyterians

    Many parliamentarians held Puritan beliefs. Puritanism was a strict form of Protestantism. Scotland was mostly Presbyterian, another type of Protestantism, so in 1643 the parliamentary leadership turned to the Scots for aid and in return agreed that the English Church would be reformed on Presbyterian lines. Parliamentary victories led to the fall of most formerly royalist regions.

  • Manchus of Qing Dynasty Topple Ming, Rule China

    The Qing, incomers from Manchuria, overthrew the Ming to establish a new ruling dynasty in China

  • Royalist Commander Rupert Suffers Defeat at York

    Attempted by Prince Rupert, a Royalist commander to relieve York ends in defeat.

  • Bristol Falls to Parliament

    Bristol surrenders to Parliament

  • Charles I Surrenders to the Scots

    Charles I surrenders to the Scots

  • Fall of Nanjing Marks End of Ming Dynasty

    The former Ming capital Nanjing is captured by the Qing
  • Period: to

    A Second Civil War

    In 1646 Charles surrendered himself to the Scots. but was handed over to the Parliament, marking the end of the First Civil War. In 1647, the King secretly negotiated a treaty with the Scots and they invaded England on his behalf. Under Cromwell, the strong New Model Army had emerged, which won key victories in the war and defeated the King's army at Preston in 1648. The King was tried and executed.

  • Qing Captures Guangzhou

    The Port city of Guangzhou was captured by the Qing
  • Period: to

    The Three Feudatories

    By 1647, Qing forces took control of China's key trading cities along the eastern coast, including Fuzhou and Guangzhou. However, they denied government roles to Chinese officials who refused to adopt Manchurian customs. In 1673, former Ming generals staged the Revolt of Three Feudatories - a mass uprising that forced the Qing to soften their policy.

  • Peace at Last: The Thirty Years' War Ends

    The Thirty Years War ends

  • Scottish Defeat at Preston

    Scottish Presbyterian Royalist army was defeated in Preston

  • End of the Line for Scottish Cavalry

    The last Scottish cavalry surrendered in Uttoxeter

  • Royalist Revival Crushed with Ormonde's Overthrow

    Defeat of Marquis of Ormonde ends chance of Royalist revival in Ireland

  • Cromwell's Sack of Drogheda

    Drogheda was sacked by Cromwell, causing large numbers of civilian casualties

  • London Witness to Charles' Execution

    Charles, I executed in London

  • Soldiers Mutiny in Bishopsgate

    Leveller mutiny by soldiers stationed in Bishopsgate

  • From Siberia to the Sea: Russia's Historic Expansion to the Pacific

    Russia reaches the Pacific Coast
  • Period: to

    The Final Civil War

    From 1642 - 1649, much of Ireland was controlled by the Irish Catholic Confederation. Charles I's son, Charles II turned to the Confederates for help in restoring the monarchy. Under the Marquis of Ormonde, the royalist army attempted to eliminate Cromwell's army but was crushed in 1649. The royalists then made a new pact with the Scottish Presbyterians, but, after a final race towards London, they were defeated at Worcester in 1651.
  • Period: to

    The Marathas

    In the 1650s, the Maratha ruler Shivaji Bhonsle (r.1627 - 1680) carved out a domain along the western coast of India. Although Aurangzeb forced Shivaji to accept his overlordship in 1665, Shivaji rebelled again in 1678 and extended Maratha territory. The defection of Muhammad Akbar - Aurangzeb's son - in 1681 to the court of Shambhaji (Shivaji's son) signalled the start of the Mughal decline.

  • Marquis of Montrose defeated and hanged in Dunbar.

    Royalist leader Marquis of Montrose was defeated and hanged in Dunbar

  • Charles II's Escape from Worcester

    Charles II flee into exile after last army supporting his is defeated at Worcester.

  • Cromwell Marches on Worcester

    Cromwell's Parliamentary forces combine at Warwick and advance to Worcester

  • Royalists and Disloyal Civilians Face Land Confiscation

    Irish leaders of Royalist forces and civilians deemed disloyal to the English Commonwealth had lands confiscated.

  • Dutch Settlement in Cape Town

    Dutch settlement established in Cape Town
  • Period: to

    The English Republic

    By 1652, Cromwell was the leading parliamentarian, but radical opponents such as Levellers (who favoured social equality) came into the force. In 1654, Cromwell took up the quasi-monarchial position of Lord Protector to stem chaos. His son, Richard, succeeded him in 1658, but by then the English Republic was rudderless, and Charles II returned from exile to restore the monarchy in 1660.
  • Period: to

    Highland Rebellion Stirs Under Cunningham

    Major Royalist rising in the Highlands led by William Cunningham

  • A Royalist Uprising in South Molton

    Royalist uprising under Colonel Penruddock crushed in South Molton

  • New Sweden Falls to Dutch Forces

    New Sweden is captured by the Dutch

  • Christiaan Huygens Invents the Pendulum Clock

    Dutch mathematician and physicist Christiaan Huygens constructed the first pendulum clock
  • Period: to

    Aurangzeb's Reign

    Aurangzeb seized the throne after a long civil war against his brothers. He reasserted Mughal power in many of the empire's territories, including Bengal, and also muted a Rajput revolt in 1680. He then annexed Koch Bihar, reclaimed the Deccan, and pushed the imperial boundary as far south as Tanjore. His promotion of Islam and restoration of the jiziya tax alienated many Hindus.

  • St. Domingue: The French Colony in Haiti

    A French colony was established in Haiti

  • Chesapeake Bay Tobacco Finds Global Market

    The Chesapeake Bay area of Virginia exports $35million worth of tobacco annually across the world

  • The Return of the King: Charles II Lands in England

    Charles II lands to resume the crown of England

  • New Amsterdam Falls to the English

    The Dutch colony of New Amsterdam was captured by the English

  • New Amsterdam Becomes New York

    New Amsterdam was taken by the British and renamed New York
  • Period: to

    French India

    In 1664, the French East India Company was established for trade in Southeast Asia. Colonies were established in India, most notably in Chandernagore (1673) and Pondicherry (1674). Posts were also erected in the Indian Ocean, on the Ile de Bourbon (Reunion, 1664), Ile de France (Mauritius, 1715), and the Seychelles (1756).
  • Period: to

    Dutch Mauritius Becomes French Ile de France

    Under Dutch control. The Island of Mauritius falls into French hands in 1715 after the Dutch exit and is renamed Ile de France

  • Jamaica Captured by Britain

    Jamaica was captured by Britain from Spain

  • Kircher's China Illustrata: A Window into the East

    Athanasius Kirchner publishes 'China Illustata'.

  • New York: From Dutch to English

    New York was ceded to Britain by the Treaty of Breda

  • Hanseatic League Council Holds Final Meeting

    Hanseatic League Council meets for the last time
  • Period: to

    Six Imperial Systems

    By 1672, six empires (the British, Danish, Dutch, French, Spanish, and Portuguese) operated TAST to feed the labour demands of their plantations and mines. TAST developed its overarching triangular structure of goods moving from Europe to Africa, slaves from Africa to the Americas, and commodities from the Americas back to Europe.

  • Three Feudatories Rebellion Ends with Qing Victory

    The last force loyal to the Three Feudatories surrendered to the Qing
  • Period: to

    The Siege of Vienna

    Commanded by Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha, the Ottomans attacked Habsburg Austria in 1681, capturing northern Hungary in 1682 and besieging Vienna in July 1683. The Christian states formed a coalition and despatched an army led by the Polish king Jan Sobieski, who liberated Vienna 2 months later. Kara Mustafa was executed for his role in the defeat.

  • Qing Forces Quash Ming Loyalists in Taiwan

    Qing forces suppress Ming loyalists in Taiwan
  • Period: to

    The Morean War

    The Venetian Republic launched a campaign to conquer Morea in 1684. After taking the peninsula in 1687, the army marched to Athens, where it fired mortars at the Ottoman garrison stationed inside the Acropolis, causing great destruction to the Parthenon. A Venetian win led to the Ottomans signing the Treaty of Karlowitz, ceding Morea and parts of Dalmatia to Venice.

  • Newton's 'Principia': Unveiling the Laws of Motion and Gravity

    English mathematician Issac Newton, publishes the 'Principia', setting out laws of motion and gravity

  • The Willow Palisade: A Barrier Between Two Worlds

    The Qing built a system of embankments and ditches, known as the Willow Palisade, to restrict Chinese movement into Manchu territory.

  • Mughal Capture of Sambhaji

    Aurangzeb's army captures Sambhaji, son of Shivaji

  • Nerchinsk Pact Establishes Russian Dominion in East Asia

    The Treaty of Nerchinsk agrees on Russian spheres of influence in East Asia

  • East India Company Establishes Trading Port in Calcutta

    The English East India Company established a trading port in Calcutta, gaining a foothold in India

  • English East India Company Seizes Fort William

    The English East India Company acquired Fort William

  • Plymouth Colony Merges with Massachusetts Bay

    Plymouth absorbed into the Massachusetts Bay colony

  • Edict of Toleration Legalizes Christianity in China

    The Edict of Toleration of Christianity was passed in China

  • Bank of England Paves the Way for Modern Central Banking

    The Bank of England was established setting the model for most subsequent central banks
  • Period: to

    Liverpool's Slave Trading Legacy

    5,300 voyages are made from Liverpool, Europe's busiest slave-trading port, to Africa

  • Fall of Tayasal Marks End of Maya Empire

    The Spanish conquered Tayasal, the last Maya city-state.

  • Asian Trio Accounts for Half of Global GDP

    India, China, and Japan contribute to roughly 50 per cent of global GDP

  • Grain from Illinois Forts Fuels New France

    The forts in fertile Illinois country (Kaskaskia Cahokia, and Vincennes) became the grain garden of New France

  • Enclosure Acts: Consolidating Land Ownership in England

    Continuing a process that started in 1604 and lasted until the early 20th century, the English Parliament passed thousands of enclosure acts to consolidate land ownership.

  • North Atlantic Fish Nourished Caribbean Slaves

    Fish from eastern Canada and Newfoundland fed the entire Caribbean slave population
  • Period: to

    French Vie For Domination

    French colonists claimed and began to settle a vast expanse of North America - from the Mississippi delta in the south to the northeastern coastline, with the fur trade forming the mainstay of their economy. By 1750, rising tension over British encroachment into midwestern territories abutting the Great Plains had resulted in the French erecting a series of forts. They also formed friendly relations with tribes such as the Huron and Odawa to help them fight against the British threat.
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    Effects on African Polites

    In the 18th century, goods and weapons were traded for slaves driving the rapid expansion of the west African kingdoms of Oyo and Asante. The 19th century saw the rise of Dahomey in Benin and the Chokwe in what is now Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo.
  • Period: to

    Cotton Textile Industry

    Britain's expansion across the globe, and slave labour in its colonies, created a boom in cotton production. It provided the raw material for a new mass-market product - cotton textiles. Richard Arkwright's combination of innovations created the first modern factories, which wove cloth at ever greater levels of productivity, especially with the adaptation of steam power. Cotton was seen as a threat to the wool trade, which was slower to mechazine.
  • Period: to

    Coal

    Deforestation caused charcoal shortages and increased fuel demand due to the steam engine. Coal became an efficient alternative, and industries were initially limited to coalfield regions to avoid transportation costs. However, bulk transport of coal, first by canal and later by rail, increased production. By 1850, Britain produced 5.11 million tonnes of coal per year, a 1,000% increase.
  • Period: to

    Iron

    The full potential of iron could not be realized until it was possible to smelt iron without introducing too much sulphur, which made it brittle. In 1708, Abraham Darby first used coke (charcoal-like coal) to produce cast iron, while malleable wrought iron was produced in 1784 as a result of Henry Cort's puddling and rolling technique. Steel, which was vital to the development of the railways, became widely available in 1856 when Henry Bessemer invented the air lance.

  • The Seed Drill: Jethro Tull's Agricultural Innovation

    Jethro Tull develops his seed drill
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    The War of Spanish Succession: A Turning Point in European History

    The War of Spanish Succession confirmed the separation of the French and Spanish crowns and British control of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland.
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    Queen Anne's War

    Allied with Native American groups, French colonists raided British settlements in the New England colonies. In retaliation, the British captured the key French fortress of Port Royal in the French colony of Acadia. Following the war, mainland Acadia, Hudson Bay, and Newfoundland were ceded to Britain under the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht. Part of Acadia became Nova Scotia, so named due to its belief period as a Scottish colony in 1629 - 1632.
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    French Raids Plague British Colonies

    French raided British colonies during Queen Anne's War

  • Abraham Darby: The Father of the Coke Blast Furnace

    Abraham Darby uses coke in a blast furnace for the first time and produces cast iron

  • Russia's Rise to Power Begins at Poltava

    Swedish defeat in the Battle of Poltava marks the beginning of Russian supremacy in Eastern Europe

  • British Take Port Royal, Rename It Annapolis Roya

    British troops take the Acadian capital of Port Royal, renaming it Annapolis Royal

  • The Newcomen Steam Engine: A Revolution in Coal Mining

    Thomas Newcomen's steam engine pumps water from a coal mine
  • Period: to

    Steam Power

    Steam power was the defining technology of the Industrial Revolution as it provided the energy needed to drive highly productive factories. English engineer Thomas Newcomen's crude steam engines had powered some mines, but improvements by James Watt in the 1770s heralded a new age of steam power. Using Watt's engine, coal could be extracted from deeper levels, making available the fuel source that would power factories, steamships, and railways.

  • Treaty of Utrecht Hands Newfoundland to Britain

    Newfoundland was ceded to Britain by the Treaty of Utrecht

  • Financial Crisis Hits Britain as South Sea Bubble Explodes

    The South Sea Bubble, rampant speculation in a British Company granted a monopoly to trade with South America, caused a financial crisis

  • Through the Mist: Bering's Unsuccessful Search for Alaska

    Under the command of Peter the Great, explorer Vitus Bering navigates what is to become known as the Bering Strait. He fails to see Alaska due to mist.
  • Period: to

    Charting the North: The Great Northern Expedition's Arctic Explorations

    The Great Northern Expedition maps the Arctic coast of Siberia and some parts of North America

  • John Harrison: The Man Who Conquered Longitude

    British clockmaker John Harrison completed his first marine chronometer, greatly improving the accuracy of navigation
  • Period: to

    War of Jenkins' Ear

    The conflict between the Spanish and English over the land between South Carolina and Florida had been simmering for a century. However, the hostiles found a new edge with English naval captain Robert Jenkins' claim that Spanish coast guards had pillaged his ship and cut off his ear (which he presented to parliament). This triggered a nine-year war with Spain, which eventually became mixed up with King George's War.

  • British Colonial Raid on Cartagena Ends in Disaster

    During the war of Jenkin's Ear, a British-colonial raid on Cartagena results in the death of the majority of the raiding army
  • Period: to

    The French Threaten British Power

    The Dutch and French had their own Indian companies, which initially vied with the British for supremacy. Dutch ambitions were ended after defeat by forces of the state of Travancore at Colachel in 1741, but in 1746 the French took Madras from the British and then defeated an Indian army, establishing European military supremacy in the subcontinent.

  • Marthanda Varma's Victory at Calachel Ends Dutch Rule

    At the Battle of Calachel, Marthanda Varma of Travancore defeats the Dutch, ending Dutch power in the region

  • Spanish Armada Crushed at Bloody Marsh

    Spanish attempt to invade Georgia at the Battle of Bloody Marsh
  • Period: to

    King George's War

    In 1744, the French and British were at war in Europe, over the Austrian succession. King George's War was the name given to its French and British theatre in North America. The war resulted in the British-American colonists taking Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island. However, under the terms of the 1748 peace treaty, the British returned Louisbourg to the French - a move that infuriated the American colonists.

  • Louisbourg Falls to Americans in Historic Siege

    French fortress of Louisbourg falls to Americans during King George's War

  • French and Indian Raid Destroys Saratoga

    French forces and their Native American allies raid and destroy the village of Saratoga, killing up to 100 inhabitants

  • Carnatic Wars: A Proxy Conflict for Nawabship and Imperial Dominance

    The Carnatic War began when rivals to be Nawab of Arcot become proxies for conflict between the British and French

  • French Overthrow British Rule in Madras

    The French took Madras from Britain

  • South and East Asia Drive Global Population Growth

    A global population of about 715 million, most concentrated in south and east Asia, will almost double over the next century with the growth in Europe and the Americas

  • Coal Fields: The Birthplace of Industry

    Factories were mainly located in coal field regions during the 1750s
  • Period: to

    The Plantation Complexs

    The collapse of most of the trans-Atlantic empires did little to slow TAST, which was now driven by the three primary plantation complexes: cotton in the southern US, coffee in Brazil, and sugar in Cuba. After being run mostly out of British ports, the trade passed back into Brazillian-Portuguese and Spanish hands after the British abolished the slave trade in 1807.

  • Diderot's Encyclopédie: A Monument of Enlightenment Thought

    Denis Diderot publishes the first volume of his 'Encyclopedie'
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    The End of Acadia

    Fighting broke out in 1754 between French and British colonists over ownership rights to the Ohio River valley (a key fur trade post). Battles raged for several years, with Native American tribes pulled into the conflict. Eventually, the British captured Quebec, gained control of all former French territory, and expelled the French colonists of Acadia.
  • Period: to

    North America

    The North American theatre of the Seven Years' War is known as the French and Indian War in the US and simply as the Seven Years' War in English-speaking Canada. It began 2 years earlier than hostiles in Europe.

  • Braddock's Fateful Clash at Fort Duquesne

    At the outbreak of the war in the Ohio Valley, General Braddock, aided by Virginia militiamen commanded by 22-year-old George Washington, attack Fort Duquesne

  • Robert Bakewell and the New Leicester Sheep

    Robert Bakewell breeds the New Leicester sheep

  • Great Powers Clash: Seven Years' War Unleashed

    The Seven Years War begins

  • The Black Hole of Calcutta

    In 1756, the British started fortifying Calcutta (Fort William). This alarmed the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-Ud-Daula, who captured the small garrison and confined the garrison's members in a small prison that became famous as the "Black Hole of Calcutta". This gave the British an excuse for retaliation and a chance to exercise their imperial ambitions to the full.

  • Siraj-Ud-Duala's Sack of Calcutta and the Black Hole Tragedy

    Siraj-Ud-Duala captures Calcutta from the British and imprisons survivors in the "Black Hole".
  • Period: to

    The French and Indian War

    With French military resources committed in Europe, British colonists took advantage, waging war on their French counterparts. Key victories in Fort Louisbourg (1758), Quebec (1759), Fort Niagra (1759), and Montreal (1760) ended French territorial claims in North America, with France ceding Louisiana to Spain in the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau.
  • Period: to

    Prussia's Invasion

    When Prussia's Frederick the Great invaded Saxony, Austria and its allies retaliated on all fronts, but Prussia, aided by British subsidies, scored a string of early victories, notably in 1757 in Leuthen against French troops. However, Prussia suffered a heavy loss to Austria and Russia in 1759 at Kunersdorf. Further Russian advances appeared to seal Prussia's fate, but the death of Russia's warmonger, Empress Elizabeth, earned Prussia a timely reprieve.
  • Period: to

    Europe

    In Europe, the Seven Years' War took place on land in the centre and east of the continent, and in the seas of Western Europe.

  • British Triumph at Plassey

    British defeat French-supported Siraj-Ud-Daula at the Battle of Plassey
  • Period: to

    British Establish Dominance

    After exacting revenge on Siraj-Ud-Daula at the Battle of Plassey in 1757, the British went on to achieve a string of victories to win the Carnatic Wars - a series of conflicts between the British and French, Marathas, and Mysore for control of a swathe of eastern and southeastern India. The result was an end to French influence, and, by 1764, the establishment of Britain as the dominant power on the subcontinent, with direct control over the rich province of Bengal.

  • British Deport Acadians After Louisbourg Victory

    After capturing the key defensive fort of Louisbourg, the British sailed up the St Lawrence and began deporting all the Acadian colonists

  • British Naval Supremacy Secured

    British naval victory at Quiberon Bay (and victory at Lagos) secured maritime supremacy.
  • Period: to

    The British Blockades

    The French had planned an invasion of Britain, but their fleet was badly battered in defeats in 1759 at Lagos off Portugal (19 - 28 August) and Quiberon Bay off Brittany (20 November), while the British naval blockades impaired French supply routes to the colonies. These naval victories enabled Britain to gain an advantage over France in its colonial conquests elsewhere.

  • General James Wolfe's Triumphant Death

    General James Wolfe is killed capturing Quebec at the battle of the Plains of Abraham

  • Prussian Victories Save Austria from Collapse

    Prussian victory at Leignitz and Torgau relieves threat to Austria

  • British Triumph at Wandiwash

    The British defeated French forces at Wandiwash, confining the French to Pondicherry
  • Period: to

    British Seize Pondicherry, Ending French Influence in India

    The British besieged and eventually defeat the French at Pondicherry, effectively ending French power in the subcontinent

  • England's First Canal: The Duke of Bridgewater Canal

    The Duke of Bridgewater Canal, England's first canal, is opened

  • British Attack Havana

    The British under Admiral Pocock and the Earl of Albemarle, make a preemptive strike on Havana

  • Peter III's Rise Ushers in Peace for Russia and Prussia

    Accession of Peter III to Tsar results in peace between Russia and Prussia
  • Period: to

    The Anglo-Spanish War

    As French losses mounted, Spain became increasingly nervous about the British threat to its colonies. But before they could launch an offensive as a French ally, the British laid siege to and seized control of the Spanish colony of Havana, Cuba (1762). A month later, on the other side of the world, the British invaded Manila in the Spanish-controlled Philippines.

  • Peace of Paris Treaty

    The signing of the treaty in Paris confirmed the end of French imperial and colonial ambitions and the ascendancy of Britain as a world empire. In the war's aftermath, saddled with huge war debt, Britain attempted to draw revenues from its colonies in North America, much against the will of the colonists and fomented the beginnings of a rebellion.

  • Prussia Rises to Power After Hubertusburg

    Peace of Hubertusburg confirms a return to the state existing before the war and for Prussia, its ascendancy to great power status

  • British Proclamation Halts Westward Expansion

    The British issued a proclamation line, declaring lands to the west off-limits to colonists, to prevent further expansion into Native American territories
  • Period: to

    Taxation Tyranny

    In the years following the French and Indian War, Britain passed a series of taxation laws - not only to earn its share of profits for colonial trade in America but also to recoup the cost of the war. When Britain attempted to gain a monopoly on the lucrative tea trade by enforcing the Tea Act (1773), a group of colonists boarded British tea ships in Boston and dumped 342 chests of tea into the harbour - an act now known as the Boston Tea Party.

  • Pivotal Victory: British Triumph at Battle of Buxar

    British forces defeated an alliance of the Nawab of Bengal and Mughal forces at the Battle of Buxar
  • Period: to

    Mysore Wars

    The British East India Company fought a series of wars against the Sultans of Mysore, beginning in 1767 when Hyder Ali forced the British to make major concessions. His son, Tipu Sultan, also scored early victories but was finally defeated by the British and their regional allies at Seringapatam in 1799. Mysore was dismantled, and the East India Company took control of much of southern India.
  • Period: to

    Expansion to the West

    For centuries, the Swedish Empire and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth had limited Russia's western territory. However, the military reforms of two tsars, Ivan V and Peter the Great, helped to bring much of Poland and Lithuania into the empire by 1795. Success against Sweden in the Finnish War (1808 - 1809) gave Russia the Grand Duchy of Finland. A final shuffle of Polish territories after the Napoleonic War (1803 - 1815) defined the western limits of the Russian Empire.
  • Period: to

    The Black Sea and Crimea

    Under Empress Catherine the Great, Russia moved towards the Black Sea, securing the independence of the Crimean Khanate from the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War (1768 - 1774) and then annexing it in 1783. By 1815, Russia had gained control of the entire northern shore of the Black Sea and finally, it had a warm-water port. Russia's attempt to occupy the Balkans, however, was swiftly suppressed in the Crimean War (1853 - 1856).

  • Hyder Ali Asserts Mysore's Dominance, Forcing British Concessions

    Hyder Ali forced the East India Company to make major concessions in the Treaty of Madras

  • Watt's Rotary Engine Ushers in the Power Age

    James Watt patented the rotary steam engine, marking the beginning of what is sometimes known as the Power Age

  • Bird Man Cult Topples Moai Statues

    Most Moai statues are overthrown as Easter Islanders replace the Moai cult with that of the Bird Man
  • Period: to

    European Settlement

    In 1770 Captain Cook charted the eastern coast and claimed New South Wales for Britain, and 18 years later, the First Fleet brought the first convicts to a new penal colony at Sydney. Exploration, the growth of sheep farms, and then immigration of free settlers drove the spread and expansion of colonies. This brought settlers and squatters into conflict with the Aboriginal peoples.

  • Water-Powered Factory Ushers in Industrial Age

    In Britain, Richard Arkwright opened the first modern factory using spinning machines powered by water

  • Richard Arkwright Opens Cromford Mill

    Richard Arkwright opens Cromford Mill, a water-powered spinning factory

  • The First Continental Congress

    In 1774, delegates from 12 of the 13 colonies (Georgia did not send a representative) convened in Philadelphia for the First Continental Congress. The delegates agreed that colonists were entitled to the rights of "life, liberty, and property", and called on the colonies to stop imports from Britain. As the stance hardened on both sides, the relationship between Britain and the American colonists became irreparable.

  • First Continental Congress Convenes in Philadelphia

    The First Continental Congress was held in Philidelphia, in which the colonies decided to boycott British imports a protest against the 1773 Tea Act

  • Patriots Triumph at Bunker Hill, British Evacuate Boston

    Patriots show their determination at the fierce Battle of Bunker Hill, near Boston; the British are forced to evacuate Boston
  • Period: to

    War in the North

    American Patriots faced an experienced British army, but they proved their mettle in initial battles in Massachusetts. General George Washington marshalled his inexperienced Patriot troops through a difficult campaign, avoiding decisive defeats to reach a stalemate in the north, and scoring two moral-boosting successes: Trenton (1776) and the Battle of Saratoga (1777).
  • Period: to

    Maratha Wars

    Three conflicts between the British and the Maratha Confederacy of Hindu princes (1775 - 1782, 1803 - 1805, 1817 - 1818) effectively marked the last stand for indigenous power against British hegemony over India. As in the Mysore Wars, sometimes humiliating reverses for the British were followed by victories and gradual extension and consolidation of East India Company control.

  • America's Fight for Independence Ignites

    The American Revolutionary War begins

  • Washington Crosses the Delaware for a Much Needed Victory

    Washington crosses the Delaware and scores a symbolic victory, having suffered a series of defeats in and around New York

  • US Ports Opened to Foreign Trade

    US ports are opened to foreign trade by the Continental Congress

  • Burgoyne's Blunder at Saratoga

    British General Burgoyne, marching south from Canada to cut off the rebellious northern colonies, suffers a devastating defeat at the Battle of Saratoga

  • Marathas Stun British in Talegaon Battle

    Britain was defeated by the Marathas in Talegaon

  • French Admiral Departs for West Indies After Storm

    Following a violent storm that damages much of his fleet, French Admiral Charles-Hector d'Estaing departs for the West Indies - a great loss for the Patriots.
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    War in the South

    The British opened a new front in the south in 1778 and scored a major victory with the capture of Charleston in 1780. But the Patriots refused to give in, and slowly the tide turned against the Loyalists, culminating in an important Patriot victory at Cowpens, South Carolina. In January 1781, it proved that the British southern strategy could be countered.

  • Washington Captures Fort Vincennes

    American commander Geroge Washington led an army of 170 men to lay siege to the British fort at Vincennes

  • The First Cast-Iron Bridge: A Symbol of the Industrial Revolution

    The first cast-iron bridge is constructed
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    Patriots Face Southern Loss After Charleston Defeat

    Major British victory in Charleston threatens to cost the Patriots the south

  • Defeat of the British

    In the final stages of the war, the focus shifted to the central region. Costly pyrrhic victories for the British were followed by a decisive intervention by French naval forces in mid-1781. Washington and French General Rochambeau coordinated their forces to trap General Charles Cornwallis, leader of the British expeditionary force, in Yorktown, where he surrendered.

  • British Victory at Guilford Turns Out to Be a Pyrrhic One

    Costly win proves a pyrrhic victory for the British in Guilford

  • Cowpens: A Turning Point in the American Revolution

    Patriot victory at Cowpens

  • French Fleet Seals Cornwallis' Fate at Yorktown

    French fleet chases of the British fleet at the Battle of the Capes, depriving Cornwallis of naval support and trapping him in Yorktown

  • Yorktown Surrender Marks End of Revolutionary War

    Cornwallis surrenders at Yorktown, effectively ending the war and leading to American independence from Britain

  • Treaty of Salbai: A Truce in the Maratha-Mughal Struggle

    Treaty of Salbai signals the end of the First Maratha War

  • Soho Foundry: The First in England to Harness Steam Power

    The Soho Foundry becomes the first in England to be powered by a Watt steam engine
  • Period: to

    Birth of a Nation

    With no realistic prospect of maintaining the war on American soil, the British were forced to recognise American independence. In the Treaty of Paris, the Americans won control of their waters and vast territories, which now extended as far west as the Mississippi River. The Treaty was officially signed on 3 September 1783, and approved by the Continental Congress a few months later.
  • Period: to

    Claiming the Old NorthWest

    Following independence, the legal boundary drawn by the British no longer applied, allowing Euro-American settlers to move into the western regions beyond the Appalachians. The settlers dealt with Native American resistance by inflicting a crushing defeat at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794. The last of the resistance in the region fell at the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811, with some settlers' sights already set further west.

  • Simon Bolivar: A Man of Two Worlds

    Simon Bolivar is born in Caracas, although he travelled to Europe to study

  • Mangalore Treaty: A Truce in the Mysore Wars

    The Signing of the Treaty of Mangalore ends the Second Mysore War

  • Fareham's Iron Heritage: Wrought Iron's Arrival

    Wrought Iron was produced at the first iron-rolling mill in Fareham

  • England Establishes First Colony in Australia

    The first fleet arrives in Australia from England

  • Andrew Meikle: Inventor of the Threshing Machine

    The first successful threshing machine patented by Scottish millwright Andrew Meikle

  • Day of the Tiles: Grenoble's 1788 Uprising

    Insurrection at Grenoble
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    Convict Convoy: Over 75,000 Arrive in Australia

    Over 75,000 convicts land on New South Wales shores
  • Period: to

    State of Emergency - France

    The mounting economic and political crisis forced Louis XVI to summon the Estates-General at Versailles in 1789. The Third Estate (the commoners) formed a National Assembly and took the Tennis Court Oath, vowing to remain united until a constitution was established. July 1789 saw the storming of the Bastille, hated symbol of Ancien Regime oppression, marking the acceleration of the Revolution.
  • Period: to

    The National Assembly

    The National Assembly abolished feudalism, adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man, and proclaimed a new constitutional monarchy. In June 1791, the King was caught fleeing Paris, and the radical sentiment was further inflamed when moderates were blamed for the "massacre of the Champ de Mars" on 17 July, in which the National Guard fired upon a crowd in Paris, killing up to 50 civilians.

  • Fall of the Bastille

    Revolutionary mob storms the Bastille prison in Paris

  • Tennis Court Oath: A Pivotal Moment in French Revolutionary History

    The Tennis Court Oath establishes the National Assembly

  • 95,000 Slaves Embark on Transatlantic Journey

    About 95,000 slaves embarked from Africa for the Americas

  • The Birth of Belgium

    The Austrian Netherlands revolted and declared independence as Belgium
  • Period: to

    The Scale of TAST

    From the 1790s to 1830 over 74,000 people a year were forcibly removed from Africa in slave ships, up from 3,400 a year in 1640. Over the next two decades, a further million people were transported - around 10 per cent of the entire number of slaves traded. The vast majority of slaves were carried to South America (primarily Brazil) and the Caribbean.
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    Haiti

    Haiti, the most profitable colony in the Caribbean, previously known as Saint-Domingue, had won its independence through a brutal and protracted slave rebellion from 1719 to 1804. In 1816, Bolizar found an ally in the Haitian leaders, who armed him for a return to Venezuela on the condition that if he was successful, he would free the slaves there. In 1817, Bolivar called for the abolition of slavery in Venezuela.

  • Louis XVI's Failed Escape

    Louis XVI was captured while trying to flee

  • The Champ de Mars Massacre

    Massacre of the Champ de Mars, Paris

  • France Embraces Republic as Monarchy Crumbles

    Revolution in France topples the monarchy, establishing the French Republic

  • Paris Massacre Foreshadows Reign of Terror

    Massacre in Paris of 1,200 "counter-revolutionary" prisoners presages the Terror to come

  • Fear and Riots Paved the Way for Radicalism

    Food riots and widespread fear of counter-revolution empowered the most radical elements

  • Tipu Sultan's Defeat: Mysore's Territorial Loss

    Tipu Sultan concedes half the territory of Mysore to the Britsh after defeat in the Third Mysore War.

  • Murdock’s Coal Gas: A Brighter Future

    Scottish inventor William Murdock purifies and stores coal gas, a by-product of cooking
  • Period: to

    The Tumult Spreads Abroad

    Shockwaves rippled across Europe, sparking both revolutionary feelings (the Austrian Netherlands revolted and declared independence as Belgium) and reactionary opposition (neighbouring monarchies formed the First Coalition to restore the French monarchy). The Revolutionary Wars began, with France going to war with Austria, Prussia, and most of its neighbours. Panic grew inside France and the revolution became more extreme.
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    The Republic

    The Parisian mob, fearful that Louis XVI was in league with the Prussians, stormed the Tuileries Palace and locked up the royal family. The monarchy was abolished, a republic was declared, and a new Year One was proclaimed. The Jacobin Convention took over, promulgating in 1792 an Edict of Fraternity espousing the export of revolutionary ideas, and in 1793 the King was executed.
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    Levée En Masse

    Forced mass military conscription prompted a counter-revolutionary uprising in the Vendee and elsewhere. Combined with the threat from a British landing in Toulon, this prompted the Convention in August 1793 to issue a decree of levée en masse - total mobilization of the entire population. The Vendee risings were brutally suppressed and the foreign armies were thrown back.

  • Prussian Victory at Verdun

    Prussians defeat France in Verdun

  • France Triumphs over Prussia

    France beat Prussians
  • Period: to

    The Terror

    To stamp out counter-revolutionaries, the Convention instituted the Reign of Terror, with surveillance, denunciations, and mass executions. Maximilien Robespierre seized control of the Terror and had his opponents executed. In July 1794 the Terror reached a fever pitch and eventually consumed its own progenitors with the Thermidor coup. Robespierre's arrest and execution were followed by the end of the Terror.
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    Vendee Uprising Crushed with Massive Civilian Casualties

    An uprising in the Vendee is crushed with several thousand civilians killed

  • France Ends Slavery in Its Territories

    France abolished slavery in its dominions

  • Old Northwest Conflict Ends with US Triumph

    A decisive victory for the US ends major hostilities in the Old Northwest until 1811
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    The War at Sea

    Since the French Revolutionary wars, British command of the seas had been a constant thorn in Napolean's side. British operations as far-flung as the Caribbean and Denmark assured their naval superiority, even before the decisive Battle of Trafalgar ended French ambitions to rule the seas.

  • Glorious 1 June: British Victory Leads to French Blockade

    British victory over a French fleet (which was protecting a grain convoy from the US) on the so-called "Glorious 1 June" allowed the British to blockade the French navy in port for years
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    The Directory

    The Jacobins gave way to the Thermidorian Convention and then, in October 1795, new elections and a suppressed revolt in Paris instituted and reign of the more moderate government called the Directory and a period of relative stability. In 1796, the French general Napolean Bonaparte launched a successful Italian campaign that would make him the leading man in France.

  • British Thwart Spanish Invasion Plans at Cape St. Vincent

    The Spanish fleet was intercepted off Cape St Vincent by the British before it could join the French in an invasion of Britain

  • Ottoman Sultan Calls for Jihad Against Napoleon

    Ottoman Sultan declares jihad on Napolean in response to his invasion of Egypt

  • Nelson's Nile Triumph Shatters Napoleon's Dreams

    In the Battle of the Nile, Nelson destroys the French fleet, crippling Napolean's Egyptian campaign

  • French-Irish Alliance Fails to Ignite Irish Rebellion

    The French attempted to stir up Irish rebellion against the British, but failed to land
  • Period: to

    The Egyptian Campaign

    Napolean set off to control Egypt (and therefore probably to threaten British interests beyond - in India). He evaded Nelson's fleet and landed in Egypt. He won the Battle of the Pyramids against the Mamluks (who ruled Egypt under the Ottoman sultan) and occupied Cairo.

  • Napoleon's Unyielding Siege of Acre

    Undeterred by losing his fleet, Napolean presses on and besieges the Ottomans at Acre, who resist him with the help of British guns

  • Jaffa Battle: Napoleon's Victory Amidst Retreat

    Napolean wins a battle on his retreat to Egypt in Jaffa

  • Napoleon's Daring Alpine Crossing

    Napolean takes his army through St Bernards Pass in the Alps in midwinter to surprise the Austrians, who are besieging Genoa

  • Tipu Sultan Falls: The End of the Fourth Mysore War

    Tipu Sultan dies as British forces storm Seringapatam at the climax of the Fourth Mysore War

  • Dutch East India Company Succumbs to Free Trade

    Dutch East India Company goes bankrupt, unable to cope with the pressures of increasingly competitive free trade.
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    War of the Second Coalition

    In 1799, a coalition of nations attacked French interests while Napolean was in Egypt. Russians beat the French in Italy, and Austrians drove them back over the Rhine. Napolean returned to Egypt and staged a military coup, becoming "First Consul", before addressing the crisis in northern Italy.

  • The Invention of the Battery

    Italian physicist Alessandro Volta invented the battery

  • Norfolk's Innovative Crop Rotation Takes Root in English Farms

    Norfolk's "four-course crop rotation" becomes standard in enclosed English farms

  • Beijing Hits 1 Million as Urbanization Lags

    Only 5 per cent of the world's population lives in urban areas; the population of Beijing reaches 1 million
  • Period: to

    The American Dream

    Over 50 million migrants travelled to North America in the 19th century, the majority of them to the United States, as wave after wave left their homes for economic opportunities and political and religious freedom offered by the "land of the free". They initially came from northern Europe - Germany, Scandinavia, Britain, and Ireland - but from 1880, migrants from southern Europe, particularly Italy, began to arrive in large numbers.

  • The Battle of Morengo

    The French forces, led by First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte, engaged Austrian forces near Alessandria, Italy. The French defeated General Michael von Melas' surprise attack, drove the Austrians out of Italy, and consolidated Bonaparte's political position as First Consul of France, following his November coup d'état.

  • French Triumphs Lead to Austrian Surrender

    Austria forced to make peace after French victories at Zurich and Hohenlinden

  • British Attack Copenhagen in First Strike

    British Bombard Copenhagen in First Attack to Prevent Alliance with Napoleon

  • Richard Trevithick's 'Puffing Devil': A Revolutionary Steam-Powered Locomotive

    Engineer Richard Trevithick invents the 'Puffing Devil' - the first full-scale steam-powered locomotive
  • Period: to

    Railways

    Canals were key to the early stages of the Industrial Revolution. However, they were superseded when advancements in steam power and iron production came together to create a new form of transport - the steam railway. Able to transport raw materials, goods, and people quickly across the country, the railway allowed industry to grow across Britain.

  • Treaty of Bassein Sparks Second Maratha War

    The Treaty of Bassein triggers the Second Maratha War

  • Symington's Steamboat Revolutionizes Transportation

    William Symington invented the world's first practical steamboat
  • Period: to

    A Wave of Convicts Arrives in Tasmania

    Over 65,000 convicts land on Tasmanian shores

  • Human Population Hits 1 Billion

    The global population reaches 1 Billion

  • Slave Uprising Forges New Black Nation

    Slave rebellion established the first black state outside Africa

  • Haiti Triumphs After Long Fight for Freedom

    Recognition of Haitian sovereignty and independence is finally achieved after years of bloody struggle

  • Nelson's Caribbean Triumph

    British commander Horatio Nelson defeats the French under Villeneuve, having outmanoeuvred them in the Caribbean

  • Nelson's Pursuit: Trafalgar Awaits

    Nelson sails on to intercept a Franco-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar

  • Napoleon's Grand Army Marches on Ulm

    Napolean abandons plan to invade Britain from Boulogne and marches his Grande Armee to confront the Austrians at Ulm

  • Rajghat Treaty Concludes Second Maratha War

    The Treaty of Rajghat ends the Second Maratha War
  • Period: to

    Wars of the Third and Fourth Coalitions

    Austria joined a British-financed anti-French coalition, including Russia, Sweden, and the Kingdom of Naples. After defeats, Austria agreed to peace with France and Russia and retreated to Poland. France created the Confederation of the Rhine as a client state, while Prussia waged war with France, leading to the creation of the Duchy of Warsaw in Poland.

  • Trafalgar: A British Triumph and Nelson's End

    British Navy scores a decisive victory over a French fleet allied with the Spanish; British hero Admiral Nelson is fatally wounded

  • Napoleon's Triumph at Austerlitz Forces Austrian Peace

    Austria makes peace after French victory at Austerlitz

  • Napoleon Triumphs at Jena-Auerstadt, Claims Berlin

    Napolean occupies Berlin after beating the Prussians at Jena-Auerstadt

  • Prussia Abolishes Serfdom Amidst Lingering European Trends

    October Edict ends serfdom in Prussia; serfdom in Western Europe had mostly disappeared in the Middle Ages, but it would linger in Russia until 1861

  • Second British Bombardment Aims to Seize Danish Fleet

    British Launch Second Bombardment of Copenhagen to Seize Danish Fleet

  • Humiliation at Tilsit Seals Prussia's Fate

    Prussians were forced to sign a humiliating treaty at Tilsit after the Fourth Coalition defeat at Friedland

  • Buddle's Air Pump Revolutionizes Mining

    English mining engineer John Buddle introduced the first air pump
  • Period: to

    Brazil

    Brazil followed an uphill path to independence. It had become wealthier than its parent kingdom Portugal and hosted the Portuguese monarchy when it was displaced by Napolean in 1807. When John VI returned to Lisbon in 1821, his son Pedro remained behind as regent and, in 1822, declared himself Emperor Pedro I of Brazil, establishing an independent empire that lasted, along with slavery, until 1889.

  • Wellesley's Uneasy Victory in Portugal

    Britain lands an army in Portugal under Arthur Wellesley, who defeats the French forces there and mercifully, but unwisely, repatriates them to France

  • Russia's Path to Finnish Annexation Paved by Treaty of Tilsit

    The Treaty of Tilsit between Russia and France allowed Russia to move against their common enemy - Sweden - and annex Finland
  • Period: to

    The Peninsular War

    The French invaded Portugal and Spain and disposed of the Spanish monarchy, Years of popular Spanish uprising followed in a period that coined the term "guerilla warfare". Eventually, with Napoleon distracted by crises elsewhere, a concerted effort by the Duke of Wellington forced out the French.

  • Napoleon's Spanish Blitzkrieg

    Napoleon storms in, scatters Spanish armies and pursues a British army to the coast, where it has to be evacuated from Corunna (La Coruna).

  • Austrian Campaign Sidetracks Peninsula War

    Campaigning against Austria, although successful, distracted Napoleon from the Peninsula War

  • Rio de la Plata's Independence: A Divided Path

    Rio de la Plata declares independence from Spain, but Buenos Aires is unable to maintain control of the outlying provinces

  • Paraguay Embraces Independence

    Paraguay declared itself independent from what would become Argentina

  • Napoleon's Blunder: The French Army's Doomed March to Moscow

    French army, frozen, starving, and constantly harries by Russian forces, retreats

  • The Russian Campaign

    Napoleon's invasion of Russia incurred enormous losses without success. The Russian forces frustrated the French by retreating all the way to Moscow and then deserting the capital. The exhausted French were forced to make a long return march with winter setting in.

  • British Victories Lead to French Retreat

    British advance with a series of victories, Salamanca is the most famous; the French abandon Madrid to face Wellington

  • Napoleon Launches Massive Invasion of Russia

    Napoleon leaves the Duchy of Warsaw with 600,000 men and 200,000 horses to quickly subdue Russia

  • Russians Retreat After Indecisive Encounter at Smolensk

    The first major battle, at Smolensk, is indecisive; the Russians continue to retreat

  • French Retreat from Desolate Moscow

    French find Moscow deserted and torched; they are forced to retreat

  • Felling Colliery Disaster Sparks Mine Safety Reforms

    Mine explosion at Felling Collery kills 92 workers, leading to advances in mine safety

  • Napoleon's Pyrrhic Victory at Borodino

    French achieve victory in mass slaughter at Borodino; the Tsar refuses to make peace
  • Period: to

    Admiral Campaign

    Venezuela had already become a republic once (1811). The Admirable Campaign (the first with Bolivar in charge) was part of its second attempt, but it also proved short-lived. Bolivar fled to the Caribbean, where he wrote the 'Letter from Jamaica' - a revolutionary call to arms.

  • Napoleon Flees Battlefield, Seeks Paris Reinforcements

    Napoleon abandons the remains of his army and returns to Paris to raise fresh troops

  • Few Survivors Emerge from Napoleon's Defeat

    Only a small contingent of Napoleon's huge army makes It safely out of enemy territory

  • Napoleon's Early Triumphs in the War of the Sixth Coalition

    With fresh forces, Napoleon scored early victories against the Sixth Coalition at Lutzen, Bautzen, and Dresden

  • Napoleon's Narrow Escape After Leipzig

    The Battle of Leipzig, 560,000 combatants, is a huge loss for Napoleon, but he refused the allies' peace terms and escapes with survivors of his army

  • Uruguay Breaks Free

    Uruguay declares itself independent from what would become Argentina

  • War of the Sixth Coalition

    Britain, Russia, Portugal, and rebels in Spain were still at war with Napoleon, but after his disastrous Russian campaign, they were joined by Austria, Sweden, Prussia, and other German states to form the Sixth Coalition. The climactic "Battle of the Nations" was Europe's largest prior to World War 1
  • Period: to

    The Creek War

    A regional war between opposing factions of Alabama's Creek Nation turned into a wider conflict as settler militia units became involved. The British and Spanish supplied arms to the Red Stick Creeks in an effort to curb US expansion. however, superior US firepower led to crushing defeats and loss of vast swathes of territory in modern-day Alabama and Georgia.

  • British Victory in Toulouse Ruined by Napoleon's Abdication

    The British cross the Pyrenees and are fighting for Toulouse when Napoleon abdicates

  • Allies Liberate Paris, Napoleon Abdicates

    In the Defence of France, the Allies occupy Paris and force Napoleon's abdication in April

  • The Defence of France

    Allied armies agreed to pursue Napoleon to his total defeat, and they converged on Paris. Napoleon again scored brilliant early victories with another hastily mustered army, but he was soon forced to abdicate. The allies allowed him to be exiled as "ruler" of Ebla.

  • Napoleon's Elba Escape and Rapid Reemergence

    On escaping Elba, Napoleon gathers a new army and marches north

  • The Hundred Days

    The monarchy reinstated in France was not popular, and Napoleon was emboldened to land in France and again to gather an army, marching to attack his enemies in Belgium before they could join forces.

  • Cotton Triumphs over Tobacco in the South

    Cotton replaces tobacco as the most valuable cash crop in southern states of the US

  • Napoleon Triumphs at Ligny and Quatre-Bras

    In the final victories of Napoleon's career, his Armee du Nord repulsed Prussian and British forces separately at Ligny and Quatre-Bras

  • Napoleon's Final Stand: The Battle of Waterloo

    The British under Wellington and the Prussians under General Blucher together ensured Napoleon's last defeat at Waterloo

  • Bolívar Pens "Letter from Jamaica" in Exile

    Bolivar finishes his 'Letter from Jamaica' while in exile

  • Bolivar establishes a base in the hinterland near Angostura

    Bolivar created a base deep in the hinterland near Angostura and would use it as a starting point for his campaigns.

  • Crossing the Andes: San Martin's Daring Campaign to Liberate Chile

    San Marin led his army across the Andes in his campaign to liberate Chile from Spanish rule
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    San Martin and O'Higgins

    In southern South America, revolutionary armies under Jose de San Martin and Bernardo O'Higgins achieved daring victories over Spanish forces, first at Chacbuco (1817) and then Peru (1821) after a surprise naval attack. O'Higgins became the leader of Chile, while San Martin gave away Bolivar after meeting him in Guayaquil in 1822.

  • Marathas' Last Stand: The Battle of Ashti

    Marathas were defeated by the British in Ashti
  • Period: to

    Gran Colombia

    Bolivar boldly switched the theater of conflict to Colombia, marching his army across the Andes into the heart of enemy territory, and, in 1819, defeating the Spanish at the Battle of Boyaca. Back in Venezuela two years later, he gathered his forces, including the savage Ilanero cavalry, to win victory at Carabobo, allowing him to proclaim the Republic of Gran Colombia and become its president,

  • Bolivar's Triumph at Boyacá

    Bolivar defeats the Spanish at the Battle of Boyaca

  • World GDP Surges to $700 Billion

    Global GDP reaches $700 billion (as calculated in 1990 terms)

  • Maori Embrace Muskets, sparking Conflicts

    Maori living near stations acquire muskets, leading to intertribal wars
  • Period: to

    Musket-Armed Maori Groups Raid and Colonize South Island

    Displaced by conflict in the north, and armed with muskets. Maori groups raid and colonize sparsely settled South Island

  • San Martin's Naval Raid Liberates Peru

    A daring naval raid by San Martin, with the help of British allies, helped secure the liberation of Peru

  • Greek Revolutionaries Seize Moldavian City, Issue Uprising Call

    Greek revolutions in Moldavia occupy Jassy and call on all Greeks and Christians to rise up against the Ottomans
  • Period: to

    Pioneer Trails

    Settlers organised caravans of ox-drawn wagons and forged new routes westwards across the Great Plains in a bid to settle in new lands. For example, in 1843, about 1,000 settlers made the difficult journey along the Oregon Trail. Other groups, such as the Mormons, were escaping religious persecution, and forged the Mormon Trail, aiming to establish their own community.

  • Twin Victories for Latin America: Brazil and Ecuador Break Free

    Brazil declares independence from Portugal, and Ecuador gains freedom from Spain

  • Greece Proclaims Independence

    Greek National Assembly declares Greece a free and independent state
  • Period: to

    Sucre, Bolivar, and Peru

    Bolivar and his most able general, Antonio Jose de Sucre, moved south, liberating Ecuador in 1822 after Sucre's victory at Pinchincha, and taking possession of Peru after San Martin retired from the field. Sucre defeated the Spanish forces at the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824. By 1826 all Spanish territory had been liberated.

  • Sucre's Triumph Liberates Ecuador

    Ecuador was liberated after Sucre's victory at the Battle of Pichincha

  • The Santa Fe Trail Opens the West

    More than 2,000 settlers reach Texas via the Sana Fe Trail

  • Moreton Bay Penal Settlement

    Moreton Bay was founded as a penal settlement
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    Black War: A Tragic Chapter in Tasmanian History

    Black War led to the genocide of Tasmanian Aboriginal people by the British.

  • Sucre Defeats Spanish at Battle of Ayacucho

    Sucre crushes the last remnants of Spanish forces at the Battle of Ayacucho

  • Erie Canal: A Vital Link to the Midwest

    Lake Erie is linked to the Hudson River via the Erie Canal, forming a northern route into the Mid-West

  • Locomotive No.1 Makes History on Stockton and Darlington Line

    Robert Stephenson and Company's 'Locomotive No.1' travels on the world's first public railway, the Stockton and Darlington line

  • Erie Canal Connects New York to the Great Lakes

    Erie Canal links New York and the Atlantic coast to the Great Lakes
  • Period: to

    Colonies to Commonwealth

    Penal stations, districts, and free settlements had evolved into six colonies by 1859: New South Wales, Tasmania (originally Van Diemen's Land), Western Australia, Victoria, South Australia, and finally Queensland. Exploration, cattle farming, telegraph lines, gold rushes, and railways opened up the country, and in 1901 the colonies federated as the Commonwealth of Australia.
  • Period: to

    Canal Construction

    The Industrial Revolution fuelled a boom in canal building that created thousands of miles of new inland waterways and dramatically reduced journey times along the world's trade routes. The Panama and Suez Canals were impressive feats of engineering, but costly; over 5,000 workers died constructing the $375-million Panama Canal, and 120,000 died building the $100-million Suez Canal.
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    South Asia

    By 1850, the British East India Company, a private company was the major power in the Indian subcontinent; French and Portuguese influence in south Asia was limited to isolated pockets; the Danish had sold their colonial holdings there; and the Dutch had left by 1825. During the Indian Revolt of 1857 - 1858, the British crown took control of India and the Raj was created. When the East India Company was finally dissolved in 1876, Queen Victoria became Empress of India.

  • Liberators of South America Ascend Silver Mountain

    After the loyalist forces have been dealt with, Sucre and Bolivar climb the legendary Silver Mountain together to toast free South America

  • Athens Falls to the Ottomans

    Ottoman forces captured Athens

  • Tripartite Naval Forces Crush Egyptian Fleet

    British, French, and Russian naval fleets destroy the Egyptian fleet supporting the Ottomans

  • Perth: Birthplace of Western Australia

    The first settlement in Western Australia established in Perth

  • Stephenson's 'Rocket' Triumphs at Rainhill Trials

    English engineer Robert Stephenson's 'Rocket' wins the Rainhill Trials held by the Liverpool and Manchester Railway

  • Indian Territory: A Legacy in Oklahoma and Arkansas

    "Indian Territory" was in present-day Oklahoma and Arkansas

  • Passengers Embark on Rocket's Railway Journey

    George Stephenson's Rocket engine pulls the first passengers along England's Liverpool and Manchester Railway
  • Period: to

    Trail of Tears

    After the passing of the Indian Removal Act (1830), around 16,000 Cherokee of the southeast were rounded up at gunpoint, penned in insanity camps, and transported to newly designed Indian Territory. Nearly one-quarter perished en route. Many other tribes suffered similar forced relocations, collectively referred to as the Trail of Tears.
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    Greece, Independence, and Early Development

    Greece was the first Balkan country to gain independence from the Ottoman Empire. The was for independence, from 1821, continued for nearly 10 years before the Ottomans finally accepted Greece's independence in 1830. Greece's territory grew with the addition of the Ionian Islands in 1864 and Thessaly in 1881.
  • Period: to

    The Advent of Ocean-Going Steamships

    Steamships crossed the Atlantic in the early 1830s. Improvements to ships and their engines in the middle of the century increased the distances they could travel before re-coaling, reducing journey times. Steamships were larger and could carry more cargo and passengers, making long-distance trade far more profitable.
  • Period: to

    Central Asia and "The Great Game"

    As Russia moved south and Britain moved north from its power base in India, a series of political and diplomatic confrontations known as "The Great Game" played out, as each side tried to expand their influence in Afghanistan and its surrounding countries. Ultimately, Afghanistan became a buffer zone, but Russia was able to annex the valuable lands of Bukhara, Khiva, and Samarkand.

  • Western Australia Gains Self-Governance

    Western Australia receives its own governor

  • Russia and Persia Vie for the Caucasus

    Russia conquers the Caucasus from the Persian Empire
  • Period: to

    Indentured Labour

    Between 1833 and 1920, millions of Indians travelled to various European colonies as indentured labourers, employed for 3-5 years for the price of their passage and a small wage. Between 1852 and 1900, at least 2.3 million Chinese also emigrated on a similar basis to North America, Australia, New Zealand, and South east Asia, where they often undertook the hard labour of building railways and mining.

  • Port Phillip's Rise: From Outlaws to Colonists

    The illegal settlement of Port Phillip became a Victorian colony

  • A Legacy of Labor: The Enduring Impact of Indentured Workers on Mauritius

    Indentured labourers from India replaced slaves on the sugar plantations of Mauritius.
  • Period: to

    Austria Challenged

    In 1863, Bismarck engineered an alliance with Austria to claim the province of Schleswig and Holstein from Denmark. By October 1864, Schleswig belonged to Prussia and Holstein to Austria. The arrangement was unworkable because Holstein was isolated and hemmed in by Prussia. When Austria sought a resolution to the issue, Prussia used it as a pretext for conflict, beginning the Seven Weeks War. (1866).
  • Period: to

    Crackdown on Opium

    The opium issue became totemic for a cultural-political struggle in the Chinese government. Voices advocating a liberalization of the trade lost out when a radical patriot, Lin Zexu, was appointed imperial commissioner in 1836. Tensions boiled over after Lin confiscated and destroyed more than 20,000 chests of opium - 1,300 tonnes (1,400 tons).

  • Cyrus McCormick patents mechanical reaper

    McCormick's Mechanical Reaper Revolutionizes Agriculture
  • Period: to

    Trail of Tears: A Journey of Forced Displacement

    Native Americans are forced to relocate from their traditional lands in a journey now known as the Trail of Tears

  • British Company Founds Wellington

    British New Zealand company rushes to found Wellington, with chaotic results and dubious land claims against indigenous residents

  • Lin Zexu's War Against Opium

    Lin Zexu destroys chests of opium in Guangzhou

  • European Powers Pledge to Protect Belgian Neutrality

    The Treaty of London guarantees Belgian neutrality and commits Austria, Belgium, France, the German Confederation, the Netherlands, Russia, and Britain to military intervention if neutrality is breached.
  • Period: to

    Last Days of the East India Company

    As the Company sought to extend control to the northwest, it fought a series of conflicts in the Punjab and Afghanistan. In 1856, the Company annexed Oudh, which precipitated a revolt in 1857 that eventually led to the British government taking direct control of India. The Company was finished and the era of the British Raj had begun.
  • Period: to

    The First Opium War

    In June 1840, 16 British warships arrived at sparsely-populated Hong Kong and then menaced China to press their demands. The following year, the British attacked and occupied the walled city of Guangzhou (Canton), receiving a ransom of $6 million and provoking further hostiles. British reinforcements then seized a string of cities, forcing the Qing to surrender.

  • Treaty of Waitangi: A Historical Landmark in Kerikeri

    The Treaty of Waitangi was made just outside Kerikeri

  • British Naval Power Arrives in Hong Kong

    16 British warships arrive in Hong Kong

  • British Fleet Approaches Bei River Mouth

    The British fleet sails north to the mouth of the Bei River

  • Treaty of Waitangi Paves Way for British Colonization of New Zealand

    The Treaty of Waitangi gave sovereignty over New Zealand to Britain; around 400,000 British settlers arrive in the following decades.
  • Period: to

    British Conquest

    Maori chief sought a settlement with the British crown through the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840, but many of the treaty's promised rights were ignored. The Maori people rebelled against land grabs, but a large proportion of the indigenous population were killed and most of their land was confiscated.

  • Pioneers on the Oregon Trail

    First wagons along the Oregan Trail

  • The British Attack on Guangzhou

    The British attack the walled city of Guangzhou

  • Henry Pottinger Takes Charge and Marches North

    Henry Pottinger, Britain's new Chief Superintendent of trade in China, arrives at Macau and campaigns northward

  • Treaty of Nanjing: A Turning Point in Sino-British Relations

    The Treaty of Nanjing ends First Opium War

  • Pottinger's Victories in China

    Pottinger takes Wusong, Shanghai, and Zhenjiang
  • Period: to

    Treaty of Nanjing

    In August 1842, the Chinese were forced to sign the Treaty of Nanjing, agreeing to pay a $21 million indemnity, ceding to Britain the territory of Hong Kong, and opening five treaty ports - ports where a treaty allowed foreigners to conduct trade. Further treaties, with Britain, the US, and France, followed over the next 2 years, forcing China into more concessions and feeding a growing anti-foreigner movement.

  • Maori-Settler Conflicts: A Clash of Cultures

    The clash between settlers and Maori sets of a series of conflicts

  • Steamship Crosses Atlantic In 4.5 Days

    The first steamship crosses the Atlantic, the crossing takes just 4.5 days.

  • Morse Sends Historic First Telegraph Message

    Samuel Morse sends the first telegraph message, from Washington, D.C. to Baltimore, Maryland

  • Morse's First Telegraph Message

    Samuel Morse sent first electric telegraph message in the US
  • Period: to

    The Electric Telegraph

    The electric telegraph allowed messages to travel hundreds of miles. New undersea telegraph cables revolutionized global communication. The first laid across the Atlantic cut the time for a message from Europe to reach the US from days to hours. Poor reception on the first cable meant that messages were transmitted 0.1 words a minute. Undersea cables soon connected the world.
  • Period: to

    Outbreak of the Taiping Rebellion

    Hong Xiuquan was a quasi-Christian visionary around whom a cult grew in Guangxi province in the 1840s. In 1851, Hong proclaimed a new dynasty, the Taiping Tianguo ("Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace") and assumed the title of Tianwang, or "Heavenly King". Shrugging off imperial assaults, his rebellion gathered strength and made Nanjing its capital.

  • Cricket Goes Global: Early International Tours

    The first international cricket game took place in 1844 between the USA and Canada at St George's Cricket Club in New York. In 1859, English professionals visited North America on their first overseas tour. In 1862, the first English team toured Australia, and six years later, an Australian Aborigine team toured England.

  • London Overtakes Beijing as World's Largest City

    London overtakes Beijing as the world's largest city, with a population of 1.9 million

  • Engels' Landmark Work on Working-Class Conditions Arrives in England

    'Engels' The Condition of the Working Class' is published in England
  • Period: to

    Irish Famine spurs mass exodus to America

    1.6 million Irish emigrated, mainly to the US, during the Potato Famine

  • Mormons Seek Refuge in Salt Lake City

    Mormons arrive and settle in Salt Lake City

  • Former American Slaves Declare Independence in Liberia

    Resettled slaves from America declare Liberia an independent republic

  • Republic Proclaimed in Rome

    Garibaldi declares Rome as a republic

  • London's Rapid Growth

    London is the largest city in the world; its population has increased from 1 million to 2.7 million in less than 50 years.

  • King Christian VIII of Denmark Passes Away

    King Christian VIII of Denmark dies

  • Habsburg Repression Crushes Reform Efforts

    Bloody repression by Habsburg troops end efforts for constitutional reform

  • Prussian Troops Quash Rebellion

    Uprising suppressed by Prussian troops
  • Period: to

    Outbreak of Revolution in France and Sicily

    In Palermo, Sicily, a revolt broke out against the Spanish Borbon king Ferdinand II, and it soon spread to Naples. In France, King Louis-Philippe suppressed public meetings, triggering riots in Paris. The mob was fired upon, Louis-Philippe fled, and the Second Republic was declared. Unrest erupted across France as workers took to the streets.
  • Period: to

    The Fire Catches

    Revolutionary sentiment spread across Italy. The Milanese rose up and drove the Austrian soldiers, under Marshal Radetzkey, out of the city, appealing to the Piedmontese King, Charles Albert, to take them under his protection. Venice declared itself a Republic and had the support of a number of surrounding cities, including Treviso and Udine, while Parma revolted. Charles Albert declared war on Austria but lacked allies to win.
  • Period: to

    A United German Nation

    The death of King Christian VIII of Denmark in January ignited the Schleswig-Holstein question and prompted an outpouring of pan-German nationalism, with demands for unification under a liberal constitution. Nationalist assemblies in Berlin and Frankfurt called on the Prussian king to unite Germany, and revolts flared up across the German Confederation.
  • Period: to

    The Establishment Hangs in the Balance

    The fate of the establishment hung in the balance as the forces of reaction fought to cling on. The Revolution in Vienna forced foreign minister Metternich to resign and the Emperor to flee; a liberal constitution was granted. Imperial forces crushed a pan-Slav conference in Prague but failed to prevent nationalist uprisings in Hungary.
  • Period: to

    Rupublicanism Defeated

    Republicism rising in the Rhineland and southern Germany was put down after the Prussian king refused to unite Germany under his aegis. Rome, where Garibaldi had proclaimed a republic, held out for a month but was defeated by an army sent from France, where Louis Napoleon had been elected president. Republican outposts in Venice and Tuscany were also crushed, as was the Hungarian uprising.
  • Period: to

    Reaction Ascendant

    Reactionary forces turned the tide. In France, the newly elected Assembly proved to be reactionary, resulting in riots in Limoges and elsewhere and a bloodily suppressed socialist uprising in Paris. Imperial forces subdued Vienna in June but failed to crush the Hungarian uprising. In Italy, Austrian forces crushed the Piemontese at Custoza in July.
  • Period: to

    Revolution Crumbled in Baden

    Revolution is suppressed in Baden
  • Period: to

    Political Suppression Drives Liberals to Seek Refuge Abroad

    Political suppression following revolutions in central Europe prompts many liberals to emigrate

  • Revolution in Palermo

    Revolution breaks out in Palermo

  • Barricade Battles Erupt Over Banned Banquets

    Banquets were banned, leading to riots and fighting at the barricades

  • King Louis-Philippe Steps Down

    Louis-Philippe abdicates

  • Second Republic declared

    A new era begins as the Second Republic is Declared

  • Metternich's Fall from Power

    Metternich resigns

  • Hungarian Revolution of 1848

    Outbreak of revolution; Hungary granted independence

  • Greater Poland Uprising

    Uprising in Poland

  • Charles-Albert Declares War on Austria

    King Charles-Albert declares war on Austria

  • Venice's Republic of 1848

    Republic declared in Venice

  • Sicilian Independence Declared

    Sicilian parliament declares independence

  • Sicily Retaken by Bourbon Forces

    Bourbon troops re-take Sicily

  • Socialist Uprising Suppressed

    Socialist revolt crushed in bloody fighting
  • Period: to

    Austrian Forces Crush Piedmontese Revolt

    Austrian forces defeated the Piedmontese revolt

  • Austrian Forces Recapture Milan

    Austrian forces re-take Milan

  • Pope Flees Rome

    Pope flees from Rome

  • Louis Napoleon Ascends to Presidency

    Louis Napoleon was elected as president

  • Gold Rush in California

    Discovery of Gold leads to Gold Rush in California

  • French Intervention Ends Roman Republic

    Garibaldi's Rome Republic is defeated

  • British Annexation of Punjab Following Second Anglo-Sikh War

    The British annexed Punjab in the wake of the Second Anglo-Sikh War
  • Period: to

    The Gold Rush

    The discovery of gold in California set off a frenzied Gold Rush in 1849 as hopeful prospectors poured into the region to profit from this new find, leading to a genocide of the Native American population. Between 1850 and 1860, war, disease, and starvation reduced Native American numbers in California from 150,000 to 35,000. The pattern was repeated when gold was discovered in other parts of North America.
  • Period: to

    Gold Fever

    As deposits of gold were uncovered in the 19th century, hundreds of thousands scrambled across continents and around the whole world to seek their fortune. Gold fever hit California in 1849, South Africa in 1886, and the Yukon and Klondike in Canada in 1896. In Australia, the population trebled within the decade following 1851, when gold was discovered in Ballarat and Bendigo in Victoria.
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    British Expansion in Burma: Annexation and Occupation

    The British annexed Punjab, and occupy Lower Burma; Upper Burma is annexed in 1886
  • Period: to

    The Role of Missionaries

    In 1849, Scottish missionary David Livingstone headed for Africa. His expeditions made him a hero, and his assertion that slavery in Africa could only be ended through "Christianity, Commerce, and Civilization" sparked a wave of missionary activity. Some provided valuable health and education services, but others colluded with the companies to defraud local chiefs of their lands.

  • Venice Falls Back Under Austrian Rule

    Venice is re-taken by Austria

  • Coal Production Skyrockets

    Coal production has increased tenfold from 1750

  • British Emigration Soars to Unprecedented Levels

    Emigration from England and Scotland reaches its peak of 50,000 per year
  • Period: to

    Plains Indian Wars

    A prolonged phase of bloody conflict between the Native Americans of the Great Plains and the US army centred mainly on the US imperative to secure the transcontinental travel routes from Native American aggression. Tribal chiefs such as Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull fought heroically but were unable to stop the US hunger for new territory. With the final loss of their lands, Native Americans were forced into designated reservations, to make way for a new nation.
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    Export and Investment

    As the world entered a second phase of industrialization at the end of the 19th century, South America experienced a series of export booms in nitrates, rubber, copper, and tin. South America also became a major coffee producer, and British investment in the region's railways and ports made wheat and beef viable export products.
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    British Railways Steer Argentina's Beef Exports

    Argentina's largely British-built railways make large-scale beef exports possible
  • Period: to

    10,000 Convicts Transported to Western Australia's Shores

    Nearly 10,000 male convicts were transported to Western Australia
  • Period: to

    Sardinia and Northern Italy

    In the 1850s, Sardinia-Piedmont, comprising Piedmont and Sardinia, became the most stable and advanced state in Northern Italy. Count Cavour's prime minister, Count Cavour, triggered a dispute with Austria, leading to the French recognizing Austria as a threat. In 1859, the French helped drive Austria out of Lombardy, granting the region to Sardinian king Victor Emmanuel.
  • Period: to

    Europe's Rail Network Booms

    Railway tracks in Europe grew from 24,000km (15,000 miles) in 1850 to 103,000km (64,000 miles) in 1870
  • Period: to

    Europe's Population Nearly Doubles in 50 Years

    Europe's population grew by 41 per cent, rising from 206 million in 1850 to 291 million in 1900
  • Period: to

    Iron, Coal, and Oil

    Vast quantities of lignite and coal were used in the smelting of iron ore and in foundries that made cast and wrought iron. These were used in railways that linked the industrialized cities, carrying their factories' products to ports where iron ships waited to transport them worldwide. Commercial oil extraction began in the late 19th century, but oil remained in the shadow of coal until the rise of the motor car.
  • Period: to

    Growth of Industrial Cities

    Changes in agriculture had a direct impact on the growth of cities in the 19th century. Inventions such as the threshing machine and the increasing use of fertilizers, including mineral potash, helped to free huge numbers of agricultural workers for work in Europe's cities. Once there, they were exploited as cheap labour, and often faced cramped and unsanitary living conditions in which outbreaks of cholera and dysentery were common.
  • Period: to

    Southern Europe Left Behind

    Politics, geology, and poverty conspired against southern Europe in the 19th century. In Spain, progress in the mining and steel industries was hampered by the country's dependence on subsistence farming and cultural pressures against entrepreneurship. A lack of iron and coal made industrialization hard in Italy. Only the advent of hydroelectric power late in the century brought much progress, and then only in the north.
  • Period: to

    Latin America

    from the 1850s onwards, millions of Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian people made their way to South America, attracted by the offer of preferential treatment for Europeans. They headed primarily for the rapidly expanding urban economies of Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina, which were rich in European capital and investment at the time. Brazil alone received 5 million immigrants between 1872 and 1953.
  • Period: to

    Chinese Labourers Fuel Peru's Agricultural Boom

    Tens of thousands of Chinese labourers come to work in Peru's guano, sugar, and cotton industries
  • Period: to

    East and Southeast Asia

    Agrarian unrest in China in the 1850s led to rebellion and famine and Western powers were quick to exploit the internal dissent. France and Britain extended their influence deep into China, but they faced competition from a rapidly modernizing Japan and Russia. To the southeast of the region, the British expanded into the tin and rubber-rich lands of Malaya, while the French gained control of Indochina.

  • Hargraves' Gold Discovery Sparks Australian Gold Rush

    The discovery of gold by Edward Hargraves triggers gold rush in Australia

  • Taiping Rebels Defy Siege at Yongun

    The Taiping rebels established a base in Yongun, where they are besieged by the imperial army but emerged victorious
  • Period: to

    Gold Rush in Australia

    The discovery of gold in 1851 stimulated a massive growth in immigration, urban development, and the wider economy. By 1861, Victoria's population had increased sevenfold from 76,000 to 540,000 and the wider Australian population to 1.2 million. Rebellions among the new immigrants, for better rights, led to the democratization of politics and the economy.

  • Taiping Rebels Seize Nanjing, Marking Rebellion's Peak

    Height of the Taiping Rebellion in China as rebels capture Nanjing

  • Commodore Perry Opens Japan to Global Trade

    Commodore Perry and his US fleet forced Japan to open to global trade

  • Taiping Northern Expedition Stalled Near Tianjin

    The Taiping leaders sent an expedition to northern China. It reached the neighbourhood of Taijin but finally collapsed in early 1855.
  • Period: to

    The Taiping Empire

    The Taiping Empire presented a challenge to the Qing but infighting and failed military expeditions checked its momentum. In 1856, feuding between the Taiping's top military leaders saw two of them murdered and a third flee with many men. An 1860 attempt to take Shanghai was stopped by the "Ever-Victorious Army", Western-trained and led troops fighting for the Qing.

  • Eureka Rebellion: A Fight for Democracy and Equality

    Miners' revolt at Eureka, against the colonial authority of Britain, forces the introduction of democratic reforms
  • Period: to

    Russia's Black Sea Aspirations Sink at Sevastopol

    The Siege of Sevastopol ends Russia's attempt to expand its territories in the Black Sea region
  • Period: to

    The Struggle for South Africa

    In the 19th century, South Africa was contested between the Boers, the British, and Zulus. The Boers lived in the Orange Free State and Transvaal since 1852, while British power was concentrated in Cape Colony and Natal. In 1877, the British annexed Transvaal after gold was found, crushing the Zulu kingdom. In 1910, after two Anglo-Boer wars, Transvaal, the Orange Free State, and the Zulu lands were subsumed by the Union of South Africa.
  • Period: to

    Bessemer and Thomas Revolutionize Steel Production

    English inventor Henry Bessemer and British metallurgist Sidney Gilchrist Thomas transformed steel production; the first steel-framed skyscraper is completed in Chicago in 1885

  • Oudh Annexation Sparks 1857 Revolt

    The British annexed Oudh, triggering the 1857 revolt

  • Bessemer Converter Revolutionizes Steelmaking

    The Bessemer converter was invented. It produces steel by burning off carbon impurities.
  • Period: to

    The Second Opium War

    Also known as the Arrow War, the Second Opium War was triggered in 1856 when Chinese officials boarded and searched the 'Arrow', a British ship. The following year, the French joined the British in launching a military attack. The Chinese were forced to concede the Treaty of Tianjin in 1858, allowing free travel inland for European merchants and Christian missionaries.
  • Period: to

    British Tightens Grip on India Following Mutiny

    The Indian Mutiny against the British resulted in the tightening of British control and the declaration of the "Raj"

  • Victorian Gold Rush: Population Explodes to 150,000

    The population of Victorian goldfields peaks at 150,000

  • Anglo-French Attack on Taku Forts

    English-French forces attack the Taku Forts

  • Qing Reclaim Taku Forts

    Qing Army re-occupy the Taku Forts

  • Allied Forces Storm Taku Forts

    English-French force ventured north to capture the Taku Forts

  • Transatlantic Telegraph Cables Connect the World

    The first transatlantic telegraph cables were laid.

  • Queen Victoria's Historic Transatlantic Telegram

    Queen Victoria sends first transatlantic telegraph message to President Buchanan; it took 17 hours to arrive

  • First Transatlantic Telegraph Cable Connects the Old and New Worlds

    The first transatlantic telegraph cable is laid between Ireland and Newfoundland

  • Dawn of the Raj: British Crown Rule Begins in India

    British crown rule in India (the Raj) begins
  • Period: to

    Russia and Manchuria

    From 1858, a weakening Qing Empire cededOuter Manchuria to Russia - an area from which it had previously been excluded by the Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689). Russia founded Vladivostok, a relatively ice-free port, and in 1898 leased the Liaodong peninsula from China, gaining the warm-water port of Port Arthur. Alarmed by Japan's growing interest in China, Russia occupied southern Manchuria but was defeated in the Russo-Japanese War (1904 - 1905) and abandoned its imperial ambitions in the area.

  • Moreton Bay's Transformation into Queensland

    Moreton Bay becomes a Queensland colony

  • Second Battle of Taku Forts

    English-French forces attack the Taku Forts for a second time

  • Franco-Sardinian Victories at Magenta and Solferino

    French and Piedmontese soldiers defeated Austria at the battles of Magenta and Solferino
  • Period: to

    France Expands Colonial Empire in Southeast Asia

    France extended control in Southeast Asia, capturing Saigon and establishing protectorates in Cambodia and Cochin China

  • The Anglo-French Invasion of Beijing

    The English and French enter Beijing

  • The Occupation of Beijing

    Internal pressures led Emperor Xianfeng to refuse to ratify the Tianjin Treaty and to re-occupy the Taku forces - a group of forts that had originally been built to protect the Haihe estuary from Western threats. The foreign allegations that had been promised entry to Beijing were turned away. An Anglo-French force occupied Beijing and held a convention that pushed the Emperor to accept the Tianjin Treaty.

  • Taiping Advance on Shanghai Halted by Ward's Ever-Victorious Army

    An attempt by the Taipings to regain strength by taking Shanghai is stopped by the Western-trained "Ever-Victorious Army" commanded by the American adventurer Frederick Townsend Ward

  • Hunan Army Seizes Anqing, Taiping Cause Suffers

    Anqing, the capital of Anhui, is captured by the Hunan Army, severely damaging the Taiping revolutionary cause.

  • Garibaldi surrenders sword, half of Italy to Victor Emmanuel

    Garibaldi meets Victor Emmanuel at Teano to hand him half of Italy
  • Period: to

    US Farms Triple, Farmed Area Doubles

    Farms in the US tripled from 2 million to 6 million, where the area farmed more than doubled from 160 million to 352 million hectares.
  • Period: to

    The Cattle Drives

    As demand for beef grew and prices rose in the 1860s, Texan herders began to drive their cattle on long rails north to Denver and into Kansas, where they were loaded onto trains and shipped to Chicago's burgeoning meat-packing industry. By 1887, beef prices had dropped to one-half of their peak. At this point, hit by the overgrazing of the open plains and a particularly harsh winter in 1886 - 1887, the industry collapsed and many of the vast cattle ranges were enclosed by homesteaders.
  • Period: to

    Immigartion and Agricultural Development

    Millions of immigrants worked in US industrial towns and cities, but many brought agricultural skills and helped transform land management in the US. Russian Mennonites (Anabaptist Christians of German-Dutch descent), for example, began to cultivate wheat in the prairie lands of Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska, while German settlers were among the first to cultivate oranges in California. Migrants also moved between the US and Canada.
  • Period: to

    Urbanization and Population Growth

    Between 1860 and 1920, the population of the US grew from 29 million to 106 million. This drove rapid urbanization as immigrants and rural people moved to the cities. In 1860 only 20 per cent of the population lived in urban areas, but by 1920 it was nearer 50 per cent. City life was cramped and competitive; discontent and tensions between different groups often erupted into violence.
  • Period: to

    Conquest of the South

    In April 1860, an insurrection broke out in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Garibaldi sailed south with a volunteer force of 1,000 "Redshirts" and took the island of Sicily. When he entered Naples, Bourbon rule in the south collapsed. The Kingdom of Italy was officially proclaimed in March 1861, and unification was completed by the addition of Venice in 1866 and Rome in 1870.
  • Period: to

    East Africa's Indian Legacy: From Laborers to Leaders

    Indian migrants arrive in East Africa to work as merchants, labourers, and later, as police officers, clerks, and accountants
  • Period: to

    Over 5 Million Europeans Seek New Life in Canada

    More than 5 million European migrants travel to Canada

  • Maxwell Unifies Electromagnetism

    James Maxwell formulates equations of electromagnetism
  • Period: to

    The War in the East

    In April 1861, Confederate soldiers attacked the US garrison at Fort Sumter, sparking the Civil War. Union victories at Manassas and Fredericksburg, and attempts to reach Richmond were thwarted. Confederate forces, under General Robert E Lee, pushed into Pennsylvania territory but were defeated at Gettysburg and retreated to Viginia.
  • Period: to

    The War in the West

    The Union army under General Ulysses S Grant won a victory at Shiloh in April 1862, before seizing key points on the Mississippi, Tennessee, and Cumberland rivers and moving south to take Vicksburg (July 1863) after a 6-week siege. New Orleans and the Confederate forts at the mouth of the Mississippi had also fallen; the Union had succeeded in splitting the Confederacy in two.
  • Period: to

    First Phase - American Civil War

    In the first phase of the war, neither side was decisively superior. However, a Union naval blockade affected the South's supplies and, after capturing Vicksburg, the Union split the Confederacy, forcing it to fight on multiple fronts.
  • Period: to

    Fall of the Taiping

    With the capture of Anqing in October 1861 by the Hunan Army (a local militia force fighting for the Qing), the revolutionary cause was doomed. In 1862, Imperial General Zeng Guofan surrounded Nanjing, and in July 1864 the city fell, ending the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. Including those lost through famine, the greatest civil war in history had cost 25 - 30 million lives.

  • Fort Sumter's Fall Ignites American Civil War

    Attack of Fort Sumter by Confederate troops sparks Civil War

  • McDougall Stuart: First to Cross Australia

    McDougall Stuart reaches the north coast, completing the first south-north exploration of Australia

  • Union Navy Establishes Strategic Foothold at Port Royal

    Union Navy established a base at Port Royal and begins blockade of Confederate states.

  • Union Navy Secures Pivotal Mississippi Stronghold

    Union fleet captures New Orleans

  • Emancipation Proclamation: Freedom from Slavery to Sharecropping

    The Emancipation Proclamation declared freedom for all slaves in the US; however, slavery was replaced by an iniquitous sharecropping system.

  • London's Underground: A Pioneering Journey

    The world's first underground railway opens in London
  • Period: to

    Māori Land Confiscated in British Invasion

    British troops occupy Waikato, and vast tracts of land are confiscated from Maori
  • Period: to

    Mass Transit in the Cities

    In January 1863, London became the first city to run trains underground. The network transported 38,000 passengers on its first day alone, and its success prompted other cities to develop their own. The underground trains boosted the economy by introducing a more efficient way to transport increasing numbers of workers across the cities.
  • Period: to

    Gettysburg: Turning Point of the Civil War

    Defeat at Gettysburg ends Confederate attempts to take the war into Union territory

  • Taiping Rebellion Ends with Qing Victory

    Qing troops finally defeated Taiping forces under General Zeng Guofan. Hong, the Taiping's leader, had committed suicide in June

  • Argentine Forces Cross into Paraguay

    Argentina's President Mitre invades southwest Paraguay
  • Period: to

    General Sherman's Advance

    In 1864, the Union targeted Atlanta, an important Confederate rail and commerce centre, which General William Sherman besieged from July 1864. Its capture in September boosted the north's morale and helped to win Lincoln a second term in office. Sherman then marched south to Savannah and the sea, operating deep in enemy territory without supply lines and destroying Confederate infrastructure, industry, and property as he went.
  • Period: to

    The End of the War

    During 1864, General Grant was put in command of all Union armies. After a series of bloody battles, he forced General Lee's Confederate army into defensive positions around Richmond and Petersburg. On 9 April 1865, Lee fled to Appomattox and surrendered. Soon after, 89,000 Confederate soldiers surrendered at Bennett House, North Carolina, effectively bringing the war to an end.
  • Period: to

    Sherman's Scorched Earth March Through Georgia

    Sherman's troops pillaged and burned much of Georgia on the "March to the Sea".
  • Period: to

    Second Phase - American Civil War

    After defeats at Vicksburg and Gettysburg, the Confederates were increasingly outnumbered and out fought by Union forces under generals Sherman and Grant. In April 1865, Confederate resistance collapsed, ending the war.
  • Period: to

    The Paraguyan War

    In 1864, Paraguay was pitted against an alliance of Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay set on conquest. Outnumbered 10 to 1, Paraguay's army was destroyed at the Battle of Lomas Valentinas in 1868. Guerrilla war rumbled on until 1870, but ultimately Paraguay lost around 140,000 square km (54,000 square miles) of territory and around half its population in the conflict.
  • Period: to

    Triple Alliance Seeks Paraguayan Partition

    Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay attempt to carve up Paraguay between them in the Paraguayan War

  • Ionian Islands Gifted to Greece to Bolster New King's Reign

    Britain transferred the Inion islands to Greece as a gesture of support for King George I
  • Period: to

    Decisive Victory at Nashville Ends Confederate Hopes in the West

    Battle of Nashville destroys Confederate army in the west

  • Freedom at Last: The 13th Amendment Abolishes Slavery in the US

    The Thirteen Amendment finally abolished slavery in the United States

  • Global Cotton Trading Revolutionized by Transatlantic Cable

    Installation of transatlantic cable enables simultaneous commodity trading of cotton futures across three continents

  • Surrender at Appomattox Marks End of Civil War

    Lee surrenders at Appomattox Court House

  • Confederates Lay Down Arms at Bennett House

    Confederates surrender at Bennet House

  • Paraguayan Flotilla Falls to Brazilian Navy at Riachuelo

    Brazilian navy defeats Paraguyan flotilla in Battle of Riachuelo on the Parana River near Corrientes

  • Paraguayan Forces Seize Nova Coimbra Fort in Surprise Attack

    Paraguayans invade Brazil and attack the Brazilian garrison at Nova Coimbra fort

  • SS Great Eastern Lays Second Transatlantic Cable

    The 'SS Great Eastern' steamship lays a second, more reliable cable

  • Steamship 'Agamemnon' Revolutionizes Trade Route

    The steamship 'Agamemnon' successfully sails from London to China with only one stop, substantially out-pacing sailing ships on the route

  • Venetia Annexed by Italy in 1866

    Italy annexes Venetia
  • Period: to

    The North German Confederation

    Prussia defeated Austria in the Seven Weeks War. Prussia kept the territories it had won in the conflict and formed a North German Confederation, in which each state kept its own laws and sent an elected representative to a federal parliament.

  • Prussian Triumph at Sadowa Seals Victory in Seven Weeks' War

    The Battle of Sadowa gave Prussia a decisive victory over Austria in the Seven Weeks War

  • McCoy’s Cattle Drives Spark the ‘Beef Bonanza’

    Joseph McCoy ships cattle from Abilene in Texas to slaughterhouses in Chicago, sparking the "Beef Bonanza"

  • Russia Sells Alaska to US for $7.2 Million

    The US purchases Alaska from Russia for $7.2 million

  • Yokohama: A Silk Gateway to Britain

    The port of Yokohama is developed for the export of silk, predominantly to Britain

  • Imperial Edict Ushers in Meiji Restoration

    The Meiji Restoration begins at the imperial court in Kyoto

  • Edo's Transformation to Tokyo: A Capital Reborn

    The city of Edo is renamed Tokyo
  • Period: to

    Battle for Hakodate: The Boshin War's Last Chapter

    Hakodate was besieged by imperial forces in the final stage of the Boshin War
  • Period: to

    Boshin War

    Civil war broke out between imperial forces and troops loyal to the ex-shogun, Tokugawa Yoshinobu when Yoshinobu was stripped of all titles and land. The imperial troops won the war's first battle, at Fushimi on 27 January 1868. They then moved east to secure Edo's surrender, before heading north to Hokkaido to defeat the remaining government supporters at Hakodate in June 1869.
  • Period: to

    Modernizing of the Army and Navy

    The Meiji government's determination to modernize the military cut across the privileges of Japan's warrior class, the samurai. In 1869, their fleets were subsumed by the new imperial Japanese Navy, and in 1873 their exclusive right to bear arms was broken by the introduction of conscription. Many samurai became officers in the new regime, where their discipline helped to create the most powerful military force in Asia by the 1890s.
  • Period: to

    Paraguayan War: Battle of Lomas Valentinas

    The Battle of Lomas Valentinas takes place in the Former Paraguay Area

  • Golden Spike Marks Completion of Transcontinental Railroad

    The US Transcontinental Railroad is completed

  • Josh Hughes Brings Steel and Coal to Donetsk

    Donestk company was founded by British businessman Josh Hughes, who builds steelworks and several collieries in the region

  • Suez Canal Opens New Era for Steamships

    Steamships gain a competitive edge from the faster route offered by the Suez Canal, which is not open to sailing ships

  • Suez Canal: A Gateway to Global Trade

    The opening of the Suez Canal links the North Atlantic to the northern Indian Ocean via the Red Sea, providing a swifter route for goods

  • Telegraphic Link Spans British Empire

    Cables between Singapore and Darwin in north Australia complete a telegraphic link between Britain and its furthest dominions
  • Period: to

    Industrialization in the US

    After the Civil War, the US rapidly industrialized, increasing factory output almost tenfold between 1870 and 1916. Industry boomed in the northeast, where coal and iron were easily accessible via the growing railway network, which extended to cities in neighbouring Canada. Banking, finance, and new inventions such as the typewriter and electric light spawned businesses, creating many tycoons.
  • Period: to

    Brazil's Black Gold: Coffee Fuels Economic Growth

    Brazil's economy has become heavily dependent on coffee exports
  • Period: to

    Tin Takes Top Spot as Bolivia's Export Leader

    Tin has become Bolivia's main export
  • Period: to

    Franco-Prussian War

    Another great power, France, viewed Prussia's growing status with concern. Bismarck engineered a political situation that provoked the French emperor, Napoleon III, to declare war. This prompted the southern German states to ally with the Northern Conference. The Germans crushed their French enemies, captured Napoleon III, and took Paris in 1871.
  • Period: to

    The Rise of Germany

    Germany made rapid progress following unification in 1871. Chancellor Bismarck's economic policies created a secure environment for investment, and the country benefited from the settlement from France after the Franco-Prussian War (1870 - 1871). Plentiful coal from the Ruhr Valley helped to fuel the developing steel, chemical, and electrical industries.
  • Period: to

    Informal Empires

    European countries, through financial investment, technical expertise, and control of resources like coal, iron, and steel, gained significant influence over territories they did not directly rule. Britain's informal empire, influenced by British investment, engineers, and railwaymen, facilitated preferential trade agreements and influenced Argentina culturally and socially.

  • Prussia's Triumph at Sedan: Napoleon III Captured

    Prussia captured Napoleon III at the Battle of Sedan

  • Arable Fallow Decline in England: From 20% to 4%

    Just 4 per cent of arable areas in England is left fallow, compared to 20 per cent in 1700

  • Krupp: The Arsenal of the German Empire

    Krupp became the armaments manufacturer for the German Empire

  • Japan Unveils 'Seiki', Its First Domestically Produced Warship

    Japan's first domestically produced warship, 'Seiki', is completed at Yokosuka Shipyards

  • Akita: A Prefecture in the New Centralized State

    Akita is one of the prefectures - the divisions of the new centralized state created when the feudal domains were abolished

  • Sectarian Violence Erupts in New York, Claiming 60 Lives

    Sixty die in violent clashes between Irish Protestants and Catholics in New York City

  • Paris Under Siege: The Prussian Occupation of France

    Prussians march through France to besiege and occupy Paris

  • Alsace-Lorraine's Transfer: A French Loss, a German Gain

    The French cede Alsace-Lorraine to Germany in the Treaty of Frankfurt
  • Period: to

    Urban Growth

    In 1871, Japan's feudal domains were reorganized into prefectures with central government control. Initially, Tokyo, Osaka, and Kyoto lost population due to migration. However, industrialization in 1883 led to population growth in urban prefectures and emerging cities like Kobe, Yokohama, Nagasaki, and Hiroshima. This change aimed to address population issues and improve governance.
  • Period: to

    Industrialization in Japan

    The abolition of feudalism in Japan freed millions of people to choose their occupation and move around the country. The government encouraged industrialization, building railway and shipping lines, telegraph and telephone systems, and opening mines, shipyards, and munitions, glass, textile, and chemical factories. Many of these were privatized when a European-style banking system was introduced in 1882, leaving the government free to invest in education and the armed forces.
  • Period: to

    Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia

    Germany negotiated alliances with Austria-Hungary and Russia to limit or prevent war. The defensive Austro-German alliance later joined by Italy (creating the Triple Alliance), prevented Austria from siding with Russia in any attack on Germany; Romania secretly joined in 1883. The Three Emperor's Alliance helped to ease the tension between Russia and Austria over the Balkans, and isolated France.

  • Carnegie Pioneers Steelmaking Innovation in Pittsburgh

    In Pittsburgh, Andrew Carnegie established the first mills in the US to use the Bessemer process for mass-producing steel

  • Patrick Sheriff's high-yield wheat arrives in Europe

    High-yield squarehead wheat bred by Scottish agronomist Patrick Sheriff arrives in Denmark, from where it will spread across Europe

  • London's New Sewer System Revolutionizes Public Health

    London's modern sewage system is completed; it transforms public health there

  • London Explodes to 4 Million

    London is the first city to reach a population of 4 million.

  • Argentina's First Successful Export of Refrigerated Meat

    First successful export of refrigerated meat from Argentina

  • Queen Victoria is proclaimed the Empress of India

    Queen Victoria declared herself as the Empress of India.

  • Congo's Scramble Begins Under Leopold II

    Scramble for Africa begins when Belgian King Leopold II begins colonizing Congo
  • Period: to

    Technology and Export

    New, refrigerated ships and the spread of railways opened up new export markets. cattle raised in America, Australia, and New Zealand were sent by train to processing plants on the coast, from which ships carried the meat worldwide. Refrigeration also boosted fruit exports, giving rise to the "banana republics" of Central America.
  • Period: to

    Africa

    In 1850, Africa was a patchwork of kingdoms, mostly unknown to Europeans. But in the 1880s, the "Scramble for Africa" began with the exploitation of the Congo by Leopold II of Belgium, who ran the country as a private fiefdom. Other European nations raced to secure territory, raw materials, and new markets. Colonization brought the Europeans into conflict not only with the indigenous populations but also with one another. By 1900, as much as 90 per cent of Africa was in European hands.
  • Period: to

    Leopold II and the Congo

    The scramble for Africa began with King Leopold II of Belgium. In 1876, he created the International African Association - a front for his imperial ambitions. He drew the employer Henry Stanley (who had spent years exploring the Congo basin) into a secret scheme to carve out a Belgian state in the region. By 1885, Stanley had secured for Leopold the Congo Free State (1885 - 1908)

  • Satsuma Rebellion

    Some samurai felt that the spirit of Japan was being destroyed by rapid reforms. In February 1877, Saigo Takamori, a key figure in the restoration who disliked the changes that were being pressed on the emperor, marched from his base in Satsuma (now part of Kagoshima prefecture), with an army of samurai. They were heading for Tokyo, but their advance was blocked by the Imperial Army at Kumamoto. Forced back to Kagoshima, the rebels were finally defeated in September.

  • Satsuma Rebels Repelled at Kumamoto, Retreat to Kagoshima

    Satsuma forces are blocked at Kumamoto and pushed back to Kagoshima

  • Kagoshima Uprising Ends in Saigo's Suicide

    The last stand of the Satsuma rebels in Kagoshima ends in Saigo's suicide

  • Dodge City: The Cattle Shipping Capital of the US

    Dodge City becomes the largest cattle-shipping town in the US

  • Plevna's Ottoman Garrison Surrenders After Five-Month Siege

    Ottoman garrison at Pleven submits after being besieged by Russian and Romanian forces for 5 months
  • Period: to

    The Russo-Turkish War

    In June 1877, 150,000 Russian troops crossed the Danube to support the people of Bulgaria and Bosnia-Herzegovina in their rebellion against Ottoman rule. The San Stefano peace treaty reshaped the Balkans region, creating Bulgaria and bringing independence to Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro.

  • Nikolaus Otto: The Father of the Internal Combustion Engine

    The internal combustion engine was pioneered by Nikolaus Otto

  • The Russian Capture of Adrianople

    Russians took Edirne, then known as Adrianople.

  • Ottoman Empire Concedes Defeat, Signs Treaty of San Stefano

    Treaty of San Stefano ends Russo-Turkish War

  • Bolivia Raises Taxes on Chilean Nitrate Company in Atacama

    Bolivia demands more tax from the Chilean Antofagasta Nitrate Company working in the Atacama

  • Bosnian Sovereignty Resides with Ottomans, Administration with Austria-Hungary

    The Treaty of Berlin puts Bosnia-Herzegovina under Austria-Hungary's control, although it remains an Ottoman possession

  • Romania's Path to Independence and the Acquisition of Dobruja

    Romania becomes independent and gains Dobruja

  • Serbian Independence Secured in Treaty of San Stefano

    Enlarged by the Treaty of San Stefano, Serbia became independent

  • Montenegro's Triumphant Expansion and Independence

    Montenegro doubled its territory and gains independence
  • Period: to

    Bulgaria Reclaims Eastern Rumelia in 1885

    The Treaty of Berlin returns Eastern Rumelia to Ottoman Empire, but Bulgaria reclaims it in 1885
  • Period: to

    Britain and Russia's Struggle for Control of Afganistan

    Britain and Russia vie for Afghanistan but both fail to add it to their empires
  • Period: to

    The Call of Comerce

    Africa was commercially attractive because it was a huge market for European manufactured goods; it had vast reserves of raw materials - including coal, metal ores, rubber, gold, and diamonds; and it had plentiful labour to raise cash crops. Many early conquests were funded by commercial interests, such as Cecil Rhodes' de Beers Consolidated Mines company (formed in 1888).

  • 'Dunedin' Delivers Frozen Meat from New Zealand to London

    The 'Dunedin' successfully transports the first full cargo of refrigerated meat from New Zealand to London

  • Zulus Fall to British Forces in Anglo-Zulu War

    British defeated the Zulus in Anglo-Zulu War
  • Period: to

    War of the Pacific

    In 1879 Bolivia, Chile, and Peru went to war over control of the Atacama Desert's nitrate deposits. Chile landed an army at Antofagasta, taking the Bolivian coastline and southern provinces of Peru. Chilean troops then sailed to attack Lima, and the city was occupied by a Chilean force between 1881 and 1884.

  • Chilean Forces Seize Control of Antofagasta

    Chilean armed forces occupy Antofagasta

  • Chile Seizes Naval Supremacy with Sinking of Huáscar

    The sinking of a Peruvian ironclad, the 'Huascar', gives Chile control of the sea

  • Aussie Beef and Mutton Embarks on 24,000km Journey to London

    Refrigerated beef and mutton are successfully shipped 24,000km (15,000 miles) from Australia to London

  • Brazzaville's Birth under French Colonialism

    Brazzaville was founded on land given into French protection in 1875

  • Rockefeller's Oil Monopoly: A 90% Stronghold

    John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Trust monopolizes 90 per cent of the oil industry
  • Period: to

    The Russian Empire

    Only after the emancipation of the serfs in 1861 was Russia able to produce enough food to sustain an industrial workforce. Work started on the Trans-Siberian Railway in the 1890s, and foreign investment funded factories in St Petersburg, Moscow, and the Donbas region. By 1900, Russia was the world's fourth-largest steel producer.
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    Land Scarcity and Food Shortages Fuel Russian Migration

    Land exhaustion and famine drive migrants from European Russia east and south into newly gained territories

  • Russo-Turkish War's Aftermath: Thessaly Ceded to Greece

    Ottoman Bulgarians ceded Thessaly to Greece following the Russo-Turkish War
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    Chilean Forces Seize Lima and Callao

    Lima and Callao were occupied by Chilean forces
  • Period: to

    Caught in the Crossfire: Serbia's Entangled Alliances

    Serbia associates with the Triple Alliance through the Austro-Serb alliance
  • Period: to

    The Mahdi's Uprising: Resistance to British and Egyptian Rule in Darfur

    Mahdiyya jihad against British and Eyptian rule in Darfur

  • US Passes Chinese Exclusion Act, Restricting Labor Immigration

    The US passed the Chinese Exclusion Act, stopping labour immigration from China

  • Britain Seizes Suez Canal, Securing Passage to India

    Britain occupies Egypt and gains control of the Suez Canal, which provides quicker access to India

  • Italy's Entry Forges the Triple Alliance

    Italy joins the Austro-German alliance to create the Triple alliance

  • San Francisco's Anti-Chinese Movement Sparks Nationwide Exclusion

    Chinese immigration into the US is banned after the anti-Chinese sentiment spread from San Francisco during the economic depression of 1877.
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    Romania's Secret Alliance: A Diplomatic Coup in the Balkans

    Romania secretly joins the Triple Alliance with Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy

  • Peru Cedes Tarapacá to Chile in Treaty of Ancón

    Peru and Chile signed the Treaty of Ancon, Tarapaca area ceded to Chile

  • French Capture of Hong-Hoa Strengthens Indochina Grip

    The capture of Hong-Hoa in Vietnam helps cement French rule in Indochina

  • Germany's Colonial Ambitions: The Acquisition of Southwest Africa

    A recently unified Germany gains its first colony, Southwest Africa

  • Buenos Aires Port Development Begins with British Backing

    Work begins on the development of Buenos Aries port, funded by British Barings bank

  • Tacna and Arica Fall to Chilean Forces

    Tacna and Arica conquered by Chile
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    Germany Extends Empire into the Pacific

    Germany created German New Guinea after annexing territories in the Pacific
  • Period: to

    Germany Divides East Africa with Britain

    Germany acquired parts of southwest Africa, present-day Togo and Cameroon. It agreed to share East Africa with Britain
  • Period: to

    Niger and Congo rivers declared open to all at Berlin Conference

    The Berlin Conference declares that navigation on the Niger and Congo be free for all
  • Period: to

    Third Anglo-Burmese War Ends French Dreams

    Third Anglo-Burmese War finally brings the whole of Burma into the Raj and ends French ambitions in the area
  • Period: to

    The Indian National Congress

    Founded in 1885, the Congress was created to petition the British for more rights for Indians. It became increasingly radical, especially from 1905 after the British viceroy Lord Curzon proposed to slip the province of Bengal in two, a decision opposed by most Indians. From then on, the Congress emerged as the main opposition movement to British rule and formed the first government of India after independence in 1947.

  • Indian National Congress Takes Root in Bombay

    Indian National Congress founded in Bombay
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    A Brief Union: Burma's 50 Years in India

    Burma became a province of India in 1886. It separated in 1937
  • Period: to

    Germany Forges Reinsurance Pact with Russia, Ensuring Neutrality

    Germany agreed to the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia, guaranteeing neutrality in any war with a third power, excluding France and Austria

  • Abolition's Embrace: Brazil Opens Doors to Newcomers

    Slavery is abolished in Brazil, triggering a large influx of immigrants

  • Rhodes and Missionaries Betray King Lobengula, Seize Land

    King Lobengula is tricked out of his land by missionaries in collusion with Cecil Rhodes

  • EFL: The Oldest Football League in the World

    The English Football League (EFL), founded in 1888 as the Football League, is the oldest competition in world football. It was the top-level football league in England from the 19th century until 1992 when the top 22 clubs formed the Premier League. In Italy, the first team, Genoa Cricket and Football Club, was founded in 1893.
  • Period: to

    Italy's Colonial Dreams Dashed at Adwa

    Italy established its first colony in Eritrea but is kept out of Abyssinia by the armies of King Menelik II at the Battle of Adowa

  • Eiffel Tower Completed

    The Eiffel Tower is completed
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    Manaos: Rubber Capital of the Amazon

    Manaos flourishes as centre of rubber boom in Amazon region

  • Riots Erupt in Cleveland as Unemployed Protest City's Lack of Action

    In Cleveland, riots break out among the unemployed, angry at the city's ineffective relief measures
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    The Development of the Triple Entente

    After the Three Emperors Alliance collapsed, Bismarck arranged the Reinsurance Treaty between Germany and Russia. In 1890, Kaiser Wilhelm II refused to renew this treaty, leaving Russia free to ally with France. The Franco-Russian alliance provided reassurance of mutual military support. Britain sought to limit threats to her Empire, and then in 1907 with Russia, creating what was called the Triple Entente.
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    Japanese Empire Grows with Annexations

    Japan gained control of the Liaodong peninsula of China and annexes Formosa (modern-day Taiwan)

  • Connecting Manchester to the World: The Manchester Ship Canal

    Manchester Ship Canal links Manchester to the Irish Sea and makes the city one of Britain's busiest ports

  • Kiel Canal: A Shortcut Between Two Seas

    Kiel Canal links the North Sea to the Baltic Sea, saving a 463-km (288-mile) journey around Jutland

  • France Establishes New Federation in West Africa

    France created the federation of French West Africa, comprising eight territories

  • Taiwan Ceded to Japan by Qing in Treaty of Shimonoseki

    The Qing ceded Formosa (Taiwan) to Japan in the Treaty of Shimonoseki

  • Pamir Protocols Set Afghan-Russian Border

    The Pamir Boundary Commission protocols define the border between Afghanistan and the Russian Empire
  • Period: to

    Central America, The Caribbean, And The United States

    In 1895, the Spanish-American War finally ended Spanish rule in Latin America. Prefaced by America's support for Cuba's revolt against Spain in 1895, the war left America in possession of Cuba and Puerto Rico and secured its influence in the Caribbean and Central America. The US then intervened across the region, in Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua, the Dominican Republic, and crucially, Panama.
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    Border Tensions between Venezuela and Guyana Spark US Intervention

    The Venezuela Crisis - a border dispute between British Guyana and Venezuela - justifies US intervention in the region

  • Budapest Digs Deep, Unveiling Continental Europe's First Metro

    Continental Europe's first underground system opens in Budapest

  • Adowa: A Triumph for Abyssinian Independence

    The Battle of Adowa secures Abyssinian independence

  • From Public Schools to National Stage: The Rise of Australian Football

    Australian football originated in the mid-19th century and evolved from English public school games. The Victorian Football League (VFL) was formed in 1897 and expanded nationally. In 1990, it became the Australian Football League (AFL). The AFL continues to expand and promote the sport, both within and beyond Australia.

  • American Triumph in 1898 Expands Territorial Reach

    Victory in the Spanish-American War gave the US Cuba and Puerto Rico

  • Caribbean Becomes US Sphere of Influence After Spanish-American War

    The Spanish-American War extended the US influence into the Caribbean

  • Puerto Rico Becomes U.S. Territory

    Peurto Rico is annexed by the US
  • Period: to

    Arms Build-Up

    Alongside shifting alliances, Europe was building its military capacity; Britain already had the largest navy in the world. Vast numbers of men were conscripted into Europe's armies and advances in military technology meant that more money was spent on the armies and navies, creating a volatile mix of militarism and mutual suspicion.
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    Germany's Naval Ambitions: A Rivalry with Britain on the Seas

    German naval laws signal Germany's ambition to build a navy to rival Britain's

  • Second Anglo-Boer War Erupts in South Africa

    The Second Anglo-Boer War begins as the British and descendants of Dutch settlers vie for control of South Africa
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    British Dominance in South Africa: From Anglo-Boer War to Union

    The Second Anglo-Boer War gave Britain control of South Africa, paving the way for the creation of the British Union of South Africa in 1910
  • Period: to

    Boxer Rebellion

    Economic woes, natural disasters, and growing anti-foreign sentiment sparked an uprising called the Militia in Righteousness (known as the "Boxers" in English). The Boxers killed foreigners and destroyed foreign property. The Qing supported the anti-foreign crusade, but some regional warlords cooperated with foreign powers to crush the uprising, which ended when an eight-nation military alliance occupied Beijing.

  • US Population Grows 14 Times in 100 Years

    The US population reached 76.2 million; it was just 5.3 million in 1800

  • Paris Metro's Rapid Construction Leads to Prompt Opening

    The Paris Metro's first line opened less than 2 years after construction began

  • South America's Last European Outposts

    The Guianas are the only remaining European colonies in South America
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    Italian Exodus: 2 Million Seek New Lives in the Americas

    More than 2 million Italians emigrated to the US and Argentina

  • America's First Underground Railway Opens

    The United States' first underground railway opens in Boston

  • Boxer Rebellion Crushed: China Faces Reparations, US Averts Partition

    International forces defeated the Boxers in Beijing. China agrees to pay swinging reparations, but US determination to protect its trade interests prevents other Western powers from partitioning China

  • Beaumont's Oil Treasure Unlocks Texas Petrochemical Potential

    Huge oil fields are discovered in Beaumont, launching the petrochemical industry in Texas

  • Kiel Dockyard Unveils Operational U-boat

    Krupp's dockyard in Kiel completes the first fully functioning U-boat

  • Wright Brothers Achieve Historic Powered Flight

    American inventors Wilbur and Orville Wright made the first sustained powered flight in an aeroplane.
  • Period: to

    Panama Enters New Era Under US Protection

    Panama becomes a US protectorate
  • Period: to

    A New Era of Power: Japan's Historic Victory over Russia

    Japan defeated Russia to become the first non-European nation to defeat a great European power.
  • Period: to

    Herero Resistance Crushed by German Genocide

    The Herero rising against German colonists ended in genocide

  • Moscow Crippled by Strikers

    Moscow is crippled by strikers protesting at working and living conditions and the lack of political reform in Russia

  • Servants of India: Promoting Development in Poona

    Servants of India Society set up to promote Indian development in Poona
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    Germany's Moroccan Gambit: A Test of Anglo-French Unity

    Germany tests the strength of the Anglo-French Entente by recognising Morocco as independent

  • Dreadnought's Debut Ignites Naval Arms Race

    The launch of HMS 'Dreadnought', the first "all-big-gun" battleship, fuels naval race.

  • Britain Backs France in Morocco, Military Alliance on the Horizon

    Britain supported France over Morocco at the Algeciras conference, and the two countries began discussing a military alliance.
  • Period: to

    Foundation of the All-India Muslim League

    The All-India Muslim League was established in Dacca in 1906 to protect the civil rights of Indian Muslims (who had opposed the 1905 division of Bengal). In the 1930s, the League adopted the idea of a two-state future for India, with Muslims having their independent nation in the majority-Muslim states of northern India.

  • League Launched: All-India Muslim League in Dacca

    All-India Muslim League founded in Dacca

  • 'Mauritiana' Sets New Atlantic Crossing Record

    'Mauritiana' sets new record by crossing the Atlantic in 4.5 days.

  • Rosyth naval dockyard begins construction

    Construction begins on Rosyth naval dockyard

  • Britain Strengthens Military with New Force Structure

    Britain reorganised its army to create an Extraordinary Force of 160,000 troops and a volunteer, part-time force of 300,000 Territorials.

  • From Rivals to Allies: Britain, Russia, and the Formation of the Triple Entente

    Britain and Russia settled disputes over spheres of influence in Persia and create the Triple Entente with France

  • Turks Embark on Era of Constitutionalism and Reform in Constantinople

    Turks established a constitutional government in Constantinople and begin programme of reform

  • Germany Launches Its First Dreadnought: SMS Nassau

    Germany launches its first "all-big-gun" 'dreadnought' battleship, 'SMS Nassau'

  • Austria-Hungary's Bosnia Move Aligns Serbia with Russia

    Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia, driving Serbia closer to Russia

  • Bosnia Crisis

    Fearing that the Young Turks in Constantinople might reinvigorate Turkey, Austria-Hungary decided to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina. When Serbia demanded that they receive compensation for the annexation, Russia supported their claim. But when Austria - backed by Germany - threatened to invade Serbia, Russia was forced to back down and accept the annexation.

  • Detroit-Born Model T Ford Revolutionizes Transportation

    The first affordable car; the Model T Ford, is manufactured in Detroit, US

  • Bulgaria Breaks Free: Prince Ferdinand Declares Independence

    Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria declares Bulgaria's independence

  • Austria-Hungary Makes Bosnia-Herzegovina Part of Its Empire

    Austria-Hungary annexes Bosnia-Herzegovina

  • Serbia Demands Novi Pazar in Show of Force

    Serbia mobilised its troops and demanded Novi Pazar region as compensation
  • Period: to

    Nicholas II Allocates Funds for Military Expansion

    Tsar Nicholas II committed around 1 million roubles to construction of a military force

  • Gatchina Skies Take Off with New Aviation School

    First aviation school opens in Gatchina

  • Madero Calls for Revolt While in Prison

    While in prison after being arrested for encouraging rebellion, Fransico Madero calls for revolt.

  • Japan Ascends to Global Dominance After Korean Conquest

    Japan annexed Korea after 3 years of fighting and becomes one of the world's leading powers
  • Period: to

    The Mexican Revolution

    In 1910, Fransico Madero challenged Mexico's dictator for the presidency and called for revolution. Armies under Pascual Orozco, Pancho Willa, and Emiliano Zapata all attacked government positions. Successive presidents failed to pacify the country, and the US intervened militarily. A new constitution was agreed in 1917, and Venstiano Carranza became president.

  • Republic Rises in Nanjing under Sun Yixian

    A provisional republican government is set up in Nanjing, with Sun Yixian (Sun Yat-sen) as premier

  • El Paso Falls to Rebels; Madero Hailed as President

    The City of El Paso was seized by revolutionary forces; Madero declared President
  • Period: to

    Xinhai Revolution

    In 1908 the Dowager Empress Cixi died, leaving the infant Puyi as emperor, Reformist and revolutionary movements then sought to harness domestic discontent. In 1911, the discovery of an anti-imperialist plot in Wuchang triggered open revolt, leading to the formation of a republican government under revolutionary leader Sun Yixian (Sun Yat-sen) in Nanjing and the end of imperial rule.
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    Nicaragua Under US Stewardship

    US occupation and financial supervision of Nicaragua
  • Period: to

    The First Balkan War

    In 1912, Russia encouraged Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and Montenegro to band together and take Macedonia from Turkey. Montenegro declared war on Turkey and was joined by the other league nations. By May 1913, the war was over and the Ottoman Empire had lost most of its remaining European territories, including Albania.
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    Balkan Alliance Shatters Ottoman Rule in Europe

    The Balkan states attacked the Ottoman Empire
  • Period: to

    Uncaptured Shanxi: Warlord Yan's Alliance with Chiang

    Chiang is unable to capture Shanxi, which is in the hands of the warlord Yan Xishan; however, in 1927, Yan briefly allies with Chiang
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    Ottoman Defeat at Yanitza Signals Greek Ascendancy

    Greek army defeats Ottomans and captures Yanitza

  • Bulgarian Triumph: Ottomans Defeated in Thrace

    The Bulgarians defeated the main Ottoman forces in Thrace and reach Constantinople
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    Serbian Triumph at Kumanovo Leads to Skopje's Liberation

    Serbian army defeats Ottomans at the Battle of Kumanovo, and joins with Montenegrins to enter Skopje

  • Global Steel Production Tops 34 Million Tonnes

    Global steel output reaches 34 million tonnes (38 million tons) a year

  • Buenos Aires' Subte: A Pioneering Underground System

    Buenos Aries' Subte becomes the first underground system in Latin America

  • Huerta Seizes Power in Mexico After Madero's Assassination

    Military coup, Victoriano Huerta assumes presidency with US approval; Madero assassinated in Mexico City

  • The Second Balkan War

    In June 1913, tension over the division of Macedonia turned to war when the Bulgarians attacked Greek and Serbian positions in the region. When Romanian and Ottoman forces invaded Bulgaria, looking for gains of their own, Bulgaria soon sued for peace and Macedonia was largely divided between Greece and Serbia.

  • Ford's Assembly Line: A Revolution in Mass Production

    American industrialist Henry Ford perfected the moving assembly line, revolutionizing mass production

  • Fall of Janina Marks Greek Victory

    Janina falls to the Greeks

  • Edirne surrenders to Bulgarian forces

    Edirne falls to the Bulgarians
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    Serbian Victory at the Battle of Bregalnica

    Bulgarian army defeated by Serbs at the Battle of Bregalnica

  • Varna Under Romanian Control

    Romanians occupy Varna
  • Period: to

    Greek Triumph at Kilkis: A Pivotal Victory in the Second Balkan War

    Greek victory against the Bulgarians at the Battle of Kilkis

  • Ottomans Reclaim Edirne

    Ottomans force Bulgarians out of Edirne

  • Bucharest Pact Resolves Balkan Conflict

    The Treaty of Bucharest ends the Second Balkan War

  • Panama Canal Opens Gateway to Global Trade

    Panama Canal completed - the fastest route between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans

  • Alliances of the Eve of the War

    By the time war broke out in 1914, Europe was divided into two well-armed camps; the Allied Powers formed the Entente powers - Great Britain, France, and Russia - and Montenegro; and the Central Powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. Throughout the war, more countries joined each side.

  • Panama Canal Inaugurates America's Transoceanic Trade Supremacy

    Completion of the Panama Canal gives America control of fastest trade route between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans

  • Carranza Ignores Villa's Objections, Claims Presidency

    Carranza declares himself president despite Villa's objections

  • Wilson's Marines Storm Veracruz

    The landing of US Marines sent by President Wilson on the coast of Veracruz

  • Sarajevo's Shot: The Assassination that Ignited World War 1

    Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in Sarajevo, leading to World War 1

  • Japan Enters the War as Britain's Ally

    Japan joined the war on the side of Britain and its allies

  • Early German Advances

    The German plan, conceived by military strategist Alfred von Schlieffen in 1905, was for a rapid march through Belgium to defeat France, then to turn eastwards to Russia. However, Russia mobilized more quickly than anticipated. Now fighting on two fronts, the Germans, heading for Paris, were pushed back by the allies.

  • Tannenberg's Twin Tragedy: Russian Armies Crushed

    Two Russian armies invade Prussia but are decisively beaten at the Battle of Tannnenberg
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    War of Movement

    Unlike the stalemate experienced on the Western Front, the Eastern Front was the war everyone had anticipated, with large armies making significant breakthroughs. The German and Austro-Hungarian forces faced Russia and its allies, including Serbia, along a front that extended more than 1,600km (1,000 miles). Russia's greatest success was under General Alexei Brusilov. From June to September 1916, he broke Austria-Hungary's lines on the southwestern front. Austria never truly recovered.
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    Caucasus Front

    The Caucasus Campaign was a series of conflicts between the Ottoman and Russian empires. Russia saw the conquest of the Caucasus front as an opportunity to capture Constantinople (modern Istanbul), as well as gain possession of Persian oil fields. The Ottomans hoped to regain lost territories. The Turkish Army was decimated.
  • Period: to

    War in the Balkans

    In July 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war against Serbia. Serbia resisted initially, but it was overrun when Bulgaria sided against them in 1915, and the Serbian forces retreated. The front stabilized roughly around the Greek border through the intervention of the Allied forces, who landed in Salonika. Romania joined the Allies in 1916, and Greece joined in 1917.

  • Sarajevo Assassination Ignites World War I

    The heir to the Austrian throne is assassinated by a Bosnian-Serb nationalist in Sarajevo; Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia

  • The Shot Heard 'Round the World: Liege and the Start of World War I

    The first battle of the war takes place with the German attack on the Belgian city of Liege, the attack brings the British Empire into the war

  • Allied Retreat from Mons to the Marne

    British land in France and meet the advancing German army at Mons; the British are forced back to the River Marne

  • Rearguard Action Saves Paris for a Day

    Britain stages a rear-guard action, suffering 7,812 casualties, but it delays the German advance on Paris
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    Allies Halt German Advance at Marne, Ushering in Era of Trench Warfare

    Allies defeat Germany at the First Battle of the Marne, preventing a German advance on Paris; both sides dig in, marking the start of trench warfare

  • Russian Offensive Resumes Despite Turkish Battalion Defeat

    Turkish forces defeated a Russian battalion at a copper mine south of Batumi, but Russia resumed offensive

  • Ottomans Suffer Devastating Defeat at Battle of Sarikamas

    Turkish 3rd Army is crushed by Russians at the Battle of Sarikamas

  • Villa's Fall from Grace: The Bloody Defeat at Celaya

    Villa defeated in a bloody battle in Calaya
  • Period: to

    US Forces Take Control of Haiti

    Haiti became an occupant of the US
  • Period: to

    Ypres: From British Stronghold to Gas Warfare's Proving Ground

    Fighting centres on the British-held town of Ypres; at the Second Battle of Ypres, germans use chlorine gas for the first time
  • Period: to

    Stalemate and Trench Warefare

    By Christmas 1914, the two opposing factions were at a stalemate and dug in along 645km (400 miles) of zigzag trench lines stretching from the Belgian coast down to the Swiss border. Along this Western Front, troops fought a series of brutal battles that gained little territory. No one had anticipated this static war.
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    The Armenian Genocide

    Claiming that the Armenians in eastern Anatolia were collaborating with Russian forces, the Turks deported the largely Christian community to the south of the country. There were mass executions and death marches across the Syrian Desert to holding camps. Up to 1.5 million Armenians were killed in the genocide.
  • Period: to

    Smyrna's Tragedy: A Chronicle of Armenian Displacement and Loss

    Over 1.5 million Armenians living in Turkey were killed by Turkish nationalists; in September 1922, the Turkish Army entered Smyrna, setting fires and massacring many Armenians, and forcing others to leave the city forever
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    The First Campaigns and the Amritsar Massacre

    In 1915, Mohandas Gandhi began to campaign for the Congress. In 1919, the British introduced the Rowlatt Act, allowing indefinite detention of political agitators. In response, Gandhi ordered a hartal (general strike), shutting down shops and businesses as a form of civil disobedience. When the British opened fire on thousands of Indians in Amritsar, Punjab, Gandhi called off the protest.

  • Ottoman Offensive on the Suez Canal

    Turkish forces launched an attack on the Suez Canal
  • Period: to

    Raid on the Suez Canal

    The Turkish army advanced through the Sinai Desert to launch an attack on the British-protected Suez Canal in Egypt. The Turkish forces hoped this would cut off Britain's lifeline to India and provoke an Islamic uprising in Egypt against British rule. It failed, but the Turkish threat tied up thousands of British troops in the area.
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    Gallipoli Campaign

    In February 1915, Allied forces launched a naval operation in the Dardanelles, with the aim of capturing Constantinople and forcing the Ottoman Empire out of the war. The operation failed, so in April, French and British forces, assisted by Australians and New Zealanders, landed in Gallipoli. After months of warfare, they withdrew.

  • Stalemate at Salonika: Allied Forces Held at Bay

    British and French forces landed at Salonika, but the Bulgarians hold them off; they remained there until September 1918.

  • Turkish Forces Halt Russian Advance at Erzurum

    Turkish forces stop the Russians at Erzurum

  • Mexican Government Defends Border, Rejects US Aggression

    Mexican government troops defeat US force

  • The Hindenburg Line: A 140km Long System of Defences

    The Germans built the Hindenburg Line, a vast system of defences 140km (82 miles) long.
  • Period: to

    The Dominican Republic Under US Occupation

    The US occupied the Dominican Republic
  • Period: to

    Somme Offensive: Allies Unleash Tanks in Stalemated War

    British and French forces launched a major offensive at the Somme. Tanks are used for the first time
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    Brusilov's Breakthrough: A Pivotal Victory for Russia

    The Brusilov Offensive is Russia's greatest military victory against the Central Powers; Austria-Hungary retreated and was much weakened.
  • Period: to

    The Tide Turns

    Despite early Russian success, by the end of 1916, Germany had gained control of the Eastern Front. The Russian forces were large, but they were disorganized. By 1917, their morale was crumbling, and the October Revolution caused major upheaval. Russia signed an armistice in December and withdrew from the war.
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    T E Lawrence Campaigns

    The tactical guidance of T E Lawrence ensured the success of the Arab Revolt. He directed a guerrilla campaign, using sabotage to blow up the Hejaz railway - a vital Turkish supply route - and took the fort at Aqaba. His forces joined General Sir Edmund Allenby in 1918, playing a crucial role in capturing Ottoman territory.
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    Verdun: A Grueling Battle with Staggering Losses

    The 300-day Battle of Verdun sees huge losses on both sides
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    British Campaigns

    After heavy Allied defeats in the Middle East, the tide began to turn. The 1916 Arab Revolt, an uprising against the Ottomans, helped push the Turks out of much of the Arabian Peninsula. Gaza fell in November 1917 and Jerusalem in December. British and Arab armies advanced, capturing the cities of Damascus and Aleppo in October 1918.
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    Narrow Strait Proves Impassable for Allied Armada

    British and French battleships launched a major attack but were unable to fight through the narrow strait of Dardanelles to capture Constantinople.
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    Ireland

    The outbreak of World War 1 interrupted a political crisis in Britain over Ireland's future. The failure to restore this crisis first caused a wartime insurrection (the Easter Rising, 1916), then a War of Independence (1919 - 1921), when Irish separatists fought to establish an independent Irish Republic. The partition of Ireland in 1922 into Northern Island and the Irish Free State led to further unrest.

  • Romania's Shifting Alliances: From Allies to Occupation

    Romania joined the Allies and is then occupied by German forces

  • October Revolution

    When Lenin returned to Russia in Autumn 1917, having been in hiding in Finland, he urged immediate action. The Red Guards seized control of Petrograd, and on 26 October 1917 guards at the Winter Palace - the seat of the Provisional Government - willingly surrendered. Power passed to the Bolsheviks, with Lenin establishing a Marxist one-party state after closing down the Russian Constituent Assembly in January 1918.

  • Gandhi's First Victory: Standing with the Indigo Peasants

    Gandhi achieved his first success supporting indigo-growing peasants
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    America's Leap into the Great War

    The US intervenes in World War 1
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    Passchendaele: A Brutal Battlefield

    325,000 Allied troops and 260,000 Germans died at the Battle of Passchendaele. Just 8km (5 miles) of land is gained
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    Independent Republics

    The Russian Empire was ethically diverse and calls for self-determination had been growing among non-Russian nationalities. After the revolution, Finland, Estonia, Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Ukraine declared independence, while Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia formed a short-lived republic. Faced with a financial crisis and militarily weak, Ukraine and the Caucasus states were later reabolished into the USSR.
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    Russia pulls out of World War 1

    The new Bolshevik government, led by Lenin, signed an armistice with the Central Powers in December 1917. The terms, which were harsh on Russia, were formalized in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. Russia relinquished control of the Baltic States and Ukraine and was forced to pay 6 billion German marks in reparations. Anger at these losses fuelled opposition to the Bolsheviks.
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    Civil War breaks Out

    Despite the Bolsheviks' power, they were a minority in Russia. Lenin initiated the "Red Terror" campaign, a campaign of intimidation against potential threats, led by the Cheka secret police. A violent civil war ensued between the Bolsheviks and anti-Bolshevik forces, including the White Army, supported by Britain, France, and the US, fearing the spread of communism.
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    Bolshevik Advances

    Although the Whites had the support of many countries outside of Russia, the Bolsheviks had a brilliant tactile leader in Leon Trotsky and were better organized. Crucially, they had control of the industrial cities of Moscow and Petrograd, which included much of Russia's railway network. When the civil war ended in October 1922, the Bolsheviks had total control of Russia.
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    Cossack Attack

    The Cossacks, a group that formed self-governing communities, rose to fight against the Bolsheviks, and many anti-Bolsheviks fled to join them in southern Russia. United with the Whites, the Cossacks put the Bolsheviks on the defensive along the Southern Front, wrecking their lines of communication, laying siege to the port city of Tsaritsyn from 1918 - 1920, and briefly occupying the city of Voronezh in September 1919.
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    Gulags

    Gulags - concentration camps for prisoners - were created under Lenin but proliferated under Stalin. They housed a range of convicts, who were exploited to open up remote and forbidding areas of the country, such as the Artic north and the Siberian east. The population of the gulag camps reached its height in the late 1940s, but the system was run down under Stalin's successors.

  • Allenby Marches Triumphantly into Jerusalem

    Edmund Allenby's forces break through at Gaza; Allenby walks through the Jaffa Gate into Jerusalem

  • Allied Victory

    By the spring of 1917, the Allied forces were exhausted, but US troops were on the way. The Germans launched a surprise attack along the Western Front, but the Allies pushed back. As the exhausted German troops struggled, the Allies began a massive 100-day offensive, breaching the heavily fortified Hindenburg Line. Germany signed an armistice on 11 November 1918.

  • German Forces Unchecked; Russia Moves Capital to Moscow

    Russia moved the state capital to Moscow (from Petrograd), after German soldiers march through Russia virtually unopposed

  • Admiral Kolchak and the Allied Intervention in the Russian Civil War

    Allied forces offer support to the leader of the White Army, Admiral Alexander Kolchak, who sets up his government in Omsk

  • Defending the Trans-Siberian: A Race Against Bolshevik Sabotage

    Allied forces guard the Trans-Siberian Railway to protect their war supplies from Bolshevik attacks and keep the railway running

  • From Empire to Yugoslavia: The Birth of a Balkan Nation

    The Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes was formed from parts of the old Austro-Hungarian Empire and Serbia. It was renamed Yugoslavia in 1929.

  • Romania Expands with Bessarabian Annexation

    The region of Bessarabia is added to Romania

  • Lenin moves the capital to Moscow

    Fearing invasion from the West, Lenin moved the capital city further east, to Moscow. It undergoes extensive modernization, including the building of the Metro system.

  • Gandhi Wins Tax Relief for Kheda Peasants

    Gandhi campaigns successfully for Kheda peasants demanding tax relief
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    Desperate German Offensive Breaks Stalemate, Targets Rheims

    German forces attempted to break the stalemate on the Western Front by launching a series of offensives, known as the Spring Offensive, including an attack on Rheims.
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    Spanish Flu Decimates Humanity

    Taking millions of lives, an outbreak of Spanish flu becomes the world's most deadly natural disaster
  • Period: to

    Russian Losses

    The Bolshevik regime could not hold on to its new empire. In the 1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Russia recognised the independence of the Baltic States, Ukraine, Georgia, and Finland. Ukraine and Georgia both joined the USSR in 1922, and the Baltic States did not achieve true independence until the 1920s.
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    German Losses

    The terms set out against Germany by the 1919 Treaty of Versailles were punitive. One-eighth of its pre-war territory was lost, including land in Poland, Denmark, Belgium, and France. It was stripped of its colonial possessions, its armed forces were reduced and its merchant fleet confiscated. Germany was made to pay war reparations, provoking bitter, long-lasting resentment.
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    Collapse and Division of Austria-Hungary

    After the Habsburg regime collapsed in 1918, new national states were created in Austria, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia. The new states of Poland and Yugoslavia also absorbed Habsburg territories. The Austrian army was restricted and reparations imposed, and Hungary lost two-thirds of its old land, principally to Yugoslavia and Romania.
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    White Army Commander Falls at Battle of Yekaterinodar

    At the Battle of Yekaterinodar, the first major battle between the two armies, the commander of the White Army is killed in combat
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    Tsar Nicholas II and Family Assassinated by Bolsheviks

    Tsar Nicholas II is shot by the Bolsheviks, along with his wife, five children, and four royal staff members
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    White Army, Czechs Fall in Battle of Kazan

    The White Army, allied with the Czechs, suffered a defeat at the Battle of Kazan

  • Baku's Oil Fields Change Hands as Armistice Ends Ottoman Occupation

    Ottomans captured Baku, a city rich in oil; the armistice in November 1918 forces them to withdraw

  • Serbia's Liberation: From Bulgarian Defeat to Allied Victory

    The Serbian army defeated the Bulgarians, who signed an armistice 2 weeks after; Serbia was liberated by the Allied forces the following month

  • Allenby and Lawrence's Triumphant Capture of Damascus

    Edmund Allenby and T E Lawrence capture Damascus

  • Germany Surrenders, Ending World War I

    Germany signs an armistice that marks the end of the war

  • France Enters Russian Civil War

    France, an ally to the Whites, enters the civil war by sending troops to Odessa

  • Allied Intervention in the Russian Civil War

    Troops from Allied nations are sent to fight with the Whites, largely in Siberia, through the city of Vladivostok

  • Austria's New Borders

    The Treaty of St-Germain sets the borders of the new state of Austria

  • Smyrna's Occupation Ignites Greco-Turkish War

    Greece occupies Smyrna, leading to war between Greece and Turkey

  • Jallianwala Bagh Massacre: A Day of Infamy in Amritsar

    The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, a day of infamy in Amritsar, has left a lasting impact on the city's history.
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    Poland Defends Independence Against Bolshevik Invasion

    With growing Bolshevik success in the civil war, Lenin sought to gain back lost territory in Poland. After initial success, the Bolsheviks were defeated at the Battle of Warsaw
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    Non-Cooperation Movement

    In response to the Amritsar massacre, Gandhi began to argue for 'swaraj' ("self-rule") for India, to be achieved through 'satyagraha' ("truth force"), an idea developed by Gandhi as a form of non-violent resistance. Despite its peaceful intentions, the campaign turned violent and Gandhi suspended it in 1922.

  • Red Army Captures Odessa

    Allied forces lose Odessa to the Red Army

  • A Christmas Truce on the Football Field

    On Christmas Day 104 years ago, the English and German football games were filled with emotions and pleasurable moments. The players shared hopes and fears, helped each other bury their dead, exchanged cigarettes and souvenirs, and toasted each other with rum. The perfect weather, cloudless skies, and snow made the day perfect for a football match. A deflated football was given as a Christmas present, and the kids, as soon as they saw the ball, started playing.

  • Estonia's Triumph: Liberation from Russia

    Estonia was liberated from Russia following the Estonian War of Independence

  • Finland Secures Recognition from Russia in Historic Treaty

    Russia recognizes Finnish independence in the Treaty of Tartu

  • Lithuania and Soviet Russia Forge Peace

    A peace treaty was signed between Lithuania and Soviet Russia after the Lithuanian War of Independence

  • Maintaining Order: British Security's Failure Amidst Anti-Jewish Riots

    Anti-Jewish riots in 1920, 1921, and 1929 reveal the failure of British security forces to maintain order

  • Transjordan Granted to Britain as League of Nations Mandate

    The Transjordan region was made into a League of Nations mandate to be administered by Britain

  • Arab Revolt Unites Muslims Against British, Thousands Killed

    An uprising against the British briefly unites Sunni and Shia Muslims; more than 100,000 British and Indian troops are deployed to quell the revolt, and thousands of Arabs are killed.
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    Prohibition: America's Dry Decade

    The sale and manufacture of alcoholic drinks is outlawed in the US with the introduction of Prohibition
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    British and French Mandates

    The Treaty of Sevres, signed in August 1920, divided parts of the defeated Ottoman Empire into British and French control. The Ottoman government accepted the treaty. However, it was rejected by Turkish nationalists, led by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, who were determined to drive out foreign armies. In Egypt (a British protectorate) the diminishing British military presence after the war allowed the nationalist Wafd Party to launch a revolution. Limited independence was gained in February 1922.
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    Europe

    Europe's population remained fairly static in the late 20th century. In 1920, Europe contained nearly one-quarter of the world's people; a century later it contained only one-ninth. Populations began to level off and even decline, sparking fears of an ageing population becoming dependent on a much smaller working-age population. Mass immigration partly offset the decline in some countries.
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    Red Army Triumphant in Crimea

    The Siege of Perekop leads to another Red victory, and the Red Army occupy Crimea

  • Treaty of Riga: Russia Recognizes Latvian Sovereignty

    Under the Treaty of Riga, Russia pledges to respect Latvia's independence

  • From Ashes to Industry: Novosibirsk's Rise as Siberia's Powerhouse

    Novosibirsk was reconstructed after damage done by the Russian Civil War. It became the major industrial centre in Siberia

  • The Soviet Union Emerges

    The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) is established

  • USSR Founded

    After the civil war, the country was in tatters. Around 6 million peasants died from famine between 1921 and 1922, and there was rioting in many cities. Lenin suffered a stroke in May 1922. In December 1922, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was established, based on one-party rule. Lenin died in 1924, worried about political infighting in his party. His legacy, however, was the world's first socialist state.

  • Ireland's Divided Destiny: Ulster's Protestant Enclave Under British Rule

    Ireland is divided into two parts; the six mainly Protestant countries of Ulster become Northern Ireland and are subordinate to London

  • Wafd Party's Rise Fuels Egypt's Independence

    The growing popular support of the nationalist Wafd Party prompted Britain to grant Egypt limited independence

  • Frozen Hell: Gulags in the Land of Gold and Tin

    A series of gulags is set up in the Kolyma region, an area rich in gold and tin

  • Gandhi Calls Off Non-Cooperation After Violence Erupts

    Gandhi ends non-cooperation campaign due to violence
  • Period: to

    Turkey

    The Turkish War of Independence (1919 - 1922) saw Ataturk and a rebel army fight against the Ottoman sultan and the proxies of the Allied forces. Following the nationalists' victory, a new government was set up in Ankara, and the Treaty of Sevres was abandoned. The Treaty of Lausanne (1913) legitimized the newly independent Turkish Republic and marked the end of the Ottoman Empire.
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    Palestine

    In 1922, the British were formally given the mandate to govern the region, having pledged to establish a home for Jews in Palestine. The Arabs rose up against the British and many were killed in the Arab Revolt (1936 - 1939). The influx of Jewish refugees from Nazi-Occupied territories, and the suggestion from the United Nations that Palestine be divided into Arab and Jewish states, exacerbated tensions. Civil war broke out in 1947.

  • Poland's Borders Finally Settled

    The borders of Poland are finally settled

  • Solovki prison camp opens on a White Sea island

    The Solovki prison camp is opened on an island in the White Sea. Political opponents and criminals are incarcerated here.
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    Gandhi's Campaigns

    After 2 years in prison for sedition, Gandhi returned to campaign for 'swaraj' in 1924. His most successful act was the Salt March of 1930 when, in protest against the British government's monopoly of the salt trade, he led a group of activists to Dandi, on the west coast, where they illegally produced salt - an act that sparked mass civil disobedience across India. Imprisoned again in 1932, Gandhi withdrew from active politics.
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    Vaikom: Untouchables Fight for Road Access to Temple

    Campaign to allow "Untouchables" to use the road leading to the temple of Vaikom

  • Immigrants Shape New York into a Global Metropolis

    Mass immigration makes New York the largest city in the world, with a population of more than 5 million.
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    The Northern Expedition

    Outside the few KMT-controlled provinces, China was ruled by regional warlords. Led by Chiang Kai-shek, and supported by the communist USSR, the KMT and CCP combined forces and advanced northwards from Guangzhou to unify China in a campaign known as the Northern Expedition. During the first phase, they seized wealthy and heavily populated southern, central, and eastern areas.
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    Nationalist China

    The Kuomintang (KMT) seized vast amounts of territory in 1926, but their control was challenged by both domestic and international forces keen to seize land.

  • World Population Doubles in 120 Years

    The world population reached 2 billion; it has doubled in 120 years

  • Conflict Engulfs China as Civil War Takes Hold

    Civil war breaks out in China

  • Nanjing Becomes ROC Capital After Capture by Chiang's Forces

    Captured by Chiang's forces, Nanjing was made the new capital of the Republic of China
  • Period: to

    Breakdown of the Alliance

    In the early 1920s, the USSR supported the KMT, seeing it as part of an anti-imperialist revolution. In 1923, they ordered the CCP to join the KMT, but a bitter rivalry between the parties remained. After a temporary alliance, in 1927 Chiang dismissed his Soviet advisors and then turned against the CCP in a salvage attack in Shanghai. It marked the beginning of years of violence between the parties.
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    Collectivization

    Stalin deemed Soviet agricultural methods outdated, as they produced too little food for a growing urban population. In 1927, Stalin instigated collectivization, uniting small farms into larger collectives. Food production eventually grew and labour was freed for industry. Few farms volunteered, and terror was used to coerce them into handing over their land. Millions were starved, persecuted, or sent to gulags. By 1939, 99 per cent of the land was collectivized.

  • Crimson Unrest: Uprising Rocks China

    A violent communist uprising occurs after the KMT cuts its alliance with the CCP

  • Japan Retreats into Nationalism Amidst Global Depression

    Extreme nationalism begins to take hold of Japan as the world economic depression hits; the emphasis is on the preservation of traditional Japanese values and a rejection of "Western" influence.

  • Chinese Unification

    During the second stage of the Northern Expedition, some warlords allied themselves with the KMT. This new support allowed the KMT to capture the city of Beijing. The Kuomintang became the single most powerful force in China, and Chiang Kai-shek was made president of the Republic of China in 1928.
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    Industrialization

    Stalin's main ambition was industrialization on a massive scale. Over 12 million people moved from rural areas to the new factories and towns that had been built or extensively remodelled between 1928 and 1932. They were attracted by the promise of higher wages and training. Life for workers was brutal, but Stalin achieved his goal; under the first Five-Year Plan, which ended in 1934, there was a 50 per cent increase in industrial output.

  • Beijing Falls: KMT Claims the Far North

    Beijing falls; an important victory that brings the far north under KMT control

  • Tacna Returns to Peru, Arica Remains Chilean

    Tacna area rewarded to Peru, Arica area to Chile

  • Wall Street Crash Sparks Mass Unemployment

    13 million Americans become unemployed after the Wall Street stock market crashes in the US

  • Wall Street Panic: Millions Bankrupt Overnight

    The financial bubble bursts and panic hits Wall Street, New York; banks close, bankrupting millions overnight

  • Magnitogorsk: Steel Forged from Stalin's Five-Year Plan

    Under Stalin's Five-Year Plan, iron ore-rich Magnitogorsk is extensively remodelled and became a one-industry city
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    Stock Market Crash and Strikes

    Approximately US$25 billion was lost in the 1929 crash. People became bankrupt, factories closed, trade collapsed, wages fell, and homelessness soared. There were strikes and riots across the country as workers sought protection offered by the unions, as well as the involvement of the US government in the economy.
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    Rise of the Nazi Party

    Burdened by the debt of US loans, Germany was destroyed by the Great Depression. In July 1930, Chancellor Bruning cut unemployment pay and wages. When the opposition objected, President Hindenburg used Article 48 to pass the measures by decree. New elections were called, and Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party seized their chance to campaign. Although they lost the 1932 election, Hitler became chancellor in 1933.
  • Period: to

    Latin America

    After the crash, some of Latin America saw a drop of over 70 per cent in exports to the US. In Colombia, this hit its coffee, banana, and oil markets. Brazil's coffee economy also suffered. In Cuba, reliant on its sugar exports, the impact was devastating. Chile, which exported nitrate and copper, was one of the worst-hit countries. Argentina and Venezuela, however, recovered relatively quickly.
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    USSR

    A communist nation, the USSR's isolationist economic policies protected it from the shocks of international capitalism. The West's interlinked economy meant that a decline in one country's economy created a disastrous ripple effect; the USSR's closed economy, however, meant it was not affected by other countries. The USSR experienced rapid industrial growth under Stalin's Five-Year Plans, and the ambitious targets set for factories by the government ensured that employment was high.
  • Period: to

    Australia

    In the late 1920s, Australia was already suffering from a prolonged deterioration in trade caused by a fall in the prices of wool and wheat. It had large foreign debts and increasing unemployment. During the Great Depression, the economy collapsed. By mid-1932, 32 per cent of Australians were out of work.
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    From Prosperity to Dictatorship: Argentina's Economic Crisis and Military Coup

    In Argentina, exports of wheat and beef drop by more than two-thirds and inflation increases, subsequent political instability leads to a military dictatorship
  • Period: to

    Nigerian Exports Plummet by Over 50%

    In Nigeria, exports such as cocoa and groundnuts drop by over 50 per cent

  • Chiang Captures Wuhan from KMT Rivals

    Wuhan, which was set up as a capital by rival left-wing elements of the KMT, is captured by Chiang's troops

  • Iqbal Calls for Muslim State in Northwest India

    Sir Muhammad Iqbal suggests the formation of a single Muslim state in northwest Inda
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    Gandhi's Salt March: A Journey for Freedom

    Gandhi leads the Salt March
  • Period: to

    Madras Women Lead Picketing of Foreign Cloth Shops

    Picketing of foreign cloth shops; many women participate in protests in Madras
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    Farmers in Rae Bareli Urged to Withhold Rent

    Congress urges tenant farmers to stop paying rent to landowners, who are loyal to the government in Rae Bareli
  • Period: to

    The First World Cup begins

    The FIFA World Cup is an international football competition contested by men's national teams of FIFA members. It has been awarded every four years since its inception in 1930, except in 1942 and 1946 due to World War II. Germany is the current champion, winning its fourth title in Brazil in 2014. Brazil has won 20 World Cup tournaments, making them the only team to have played in every tournament. Other winners include Germany, Italy, Argentina, Uruguay, England, France, and Spain.

  • Japanese Aggression Sparks Manchurian Crisis

    Japan invades Manchuria, seeking control over Northern China

  • Resource-Hungry Japan Invades Manchuria

    The collapse of foreign trade leads Japan to invade Manchuria for its natural resources

  • Karlag: Where Creativity Flowed in the Shadow of Gulag

    Karlag is one of the largest labour camps. Its prisoners included scientists, doctors, artists, and political figures.
  • Period: to

    Harlan County's Bloody Mine Strike

    Miners strike in Harlan County, Kentucky; like many strikes at the time, it turns violent
  • Period: to

    Chilean Copper Collapse and Plunging Nitrate Exports to the US

    In Chile, copper exports collapsed, and the value of sodium nitrate exports to the US dropped from $21 million to $1.4 million
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    Incomplete Unification

    Despite the success of the Northern Expedition, China was only partly unified. Chiang was unable to defeat all warlords, especially in the north. Faced with the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in September 1931, he became determined to eliminate domestic conflict. From 1935 - 1937, Chiang brought more provinces under the influence of the Republic of China.
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    Imperial Expedition

    Japan, which had limited land and natural resources, saw China as a key to its imperialist ambitions. As China now appeared weak and fragmented, Japan launched a series of invasions to capture territory, annexing Manchuria in September 1931. From here they sought control of the whole of northern China.

  • Mukden Incident: Japanese False Flag Operation

    Japanese soldiers blow up a strip of Japanese-controlled railway near Mukden. They blame the Chinese and use it as a reason to invade Manchuria
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    Famine

    Grain grown in the collectives was given to the city workforce, leaving little for rural peasants. The hardest hit by famine was the north Caucasus, the Volga region, southern Russia, central Russian Asia, and above all Ukraine, known as the Soviet 'breadbasket'. Millions died in the Holodomor ("hunger death"), as Stalin used famine to break Ukrainian resistance to farm reform.
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    Shanghai Under Fire: A Brief Occupation

    Japanese forces bomb Shanghai and the city is briefly occupied

  • Manchuria Falls: Sporadic Resistance Bows to Japan's Grip

    Chinese resistance is sporadic, and by March 1932 Japan has total control of Manchuria, which became a puppet state called Manchukuo

  • Sydney Harbour Bridge: A Depression Lifeline

    The new Sydney Harbour Bridge opens after 9 years of construction. It was a rare triumph during the Great Depression, as it spared many men in the city from unemployment.

  • Germany Takes a Dark Turn as Hitler Ascendancy Begins

    Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany

  • Birthplace of Horror: Dachau, the First Concentration Camp

    The first concentration camp was built in Dachau
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    Concentration Camps

    The Nazis established concentration camps in Germany upon coming to power in 1933. Designed for the imprisonment of enemies of the state, concentration camps were not initially set up to kill, but victims died by starvation and physical exhaustion. Some of these camps were later converted into extermination camps, such as Majdanek in Poland, which was originally built for Soviet prisoners of war.
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    The Long March

    Some 86,000 troops set out from the Communist Party base in Ruijin, Jiangxi, on a journey that covered 6,000 km (3,700 miles) and lasted 368 days. The communist troops were under constant attack by Kuomintang forces, facing machine-gun attacks and bombings. The communists travelled mostly at night, splitting up to avoid detection. They crossed the mountains and acres of wilderness before reaching the northern province of Shaanxi.
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    Southern Strike Ignites Historic US Labor Uprising

    Textile workers strike in Huntsville, Alabama; the strike spreads from the south of the country to the north, becoming one of the biggest industrial strikes in US history
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    West Coast Ports Shut Down as Dock Workers Strike

    Dock workers go on strike at ports in San Fransisco, as well as other west coast ports, shutting down about 3,200km (2,000 miles) of coastline.

  • The Long March Begins in Ruijin

    The communists set out from Ruijin, Jiangxi, which had been their power base throughout the early 1930s
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    Red Army Decimated at Xiangjiang River

    The first major battle, the Battle of Xiangjiang River cost Mao's Red Army roughly half of its troops

  • Mao Ascends: Zunyi Conference Marks Rise to Power

    During the meeting of the Communist Party in the captured city of Zunyi, Mao emerged as the dominant communist leader
  • Period: to

    The Philippines

    The US had acquired the Philippines from Spain after success in the 1898 Spanish-American War. The islands were granted Commonwealth or autonomous status in 1935 but were occupied by the Japanese between 1941 and 1945. After liberation, the Philippines became an independent republic on 4 July 1946.

  • 22 Against the Tide: Communist Victory at Luding Bridge

    At the Battle for Luding Bridge, 22 communist soldiers capture the bridge - a crucial river crossing - despite heavy fire

  • Mao's Climbers Conquer Lazikou Pass

    The last major hurdle for Mao's forces, they capture Lazikou Pass after climbers are sent up the cliff at night to bypass KMT defences

  • Red Star Rises: Yan'an Becomes Communist Headquarters

    Communists reach Yan'an, which becomes their headquarters

  • 200 Unemployed Dockworkers March to London in Protest

    200 men from the Jarrow dockyards in northeast England march to London to protest unemployment

  • The Start of the Spanish Civil War

    The Civil War began on 17 July 1936 when Nationalist forces based in Spanish Morocco launched a coup against the newly elected Republican government. Franco assumed command of the Army of Africa - a Moroccan-based group of professional soldiers - on 19 July. From 27 July, Franco's army was flown from Morocco to Spain by German and Italian forces, and fighting soon spread through southwest Spain.

  • Foreign Intervention

    In September 1936, 27 countries, including Britain, France, the USSR, Germany, and Italy, signed a non-intervention pact. The war had an international element due to its ideological nature. Nationalists were supported by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, while Republicans were backed by communist volunteers from Russia and Mexico, and International Brigades, left-wing fighters from around the world.

  • Gateway to Supplies: The Spanish-Portuguese Border

    The Spanish-Portuguese border is the point of entry for many supplies

  • Axis Aid Arrives in Cadiz: Supplies for Spanish Rebels

    Fascist Italy sends supplies to Nationalist rebels, which reach Spain through Cadiz
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    Second United Front

    In 1936, the KMT and CCP formed a second united front following the Xi'an Incident, where Chiang was kidnapped by members of his party and forced into an alliance. It was a fragile truce, but it meant Chiang had gained allies in the resistance against the Japanese invasion. The parties fought together in the battles at Taiyuan (1937) and Wuhan (1938).
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    Civilian Atrocities

    During the war, both sides committed atrocities against civilians. The Republicans targeted anyone believed to be right-wing, including teachers, lawyers, mayors, and landowners. Hatred of the Church meant that many churches were ransacked. Meanwhile, in Guerinca, Franco's forces undertook a brutal attack on civilians from the air. This extreme violence stunned the international community.
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    Soviet Aid Arrives in Cartagena for Republicans

    The USSR sent support to the Republicans, including tanks and weapons, to the port of Cartagena
  • Period: to

    German Supply Lifeline to the Nationalists via Huelva and Cadiz

    Huelva and Cadiz are the main ports for German supplies to the Nationalists

  • Nationalist Army Conquers Morocco, Invades Spain

    By the evening, the Nationalist army controls all of Spanish Morocco and then invades Spain. Fighting soon spreads to Cadiz, Seville, and Malaga

  • Franco arrives in Seville

    Franco's arrival in Seville marks a turning point in the Spanish Civil War

  • Bloodbath in Badajoz: Franco's Troops Unleash Fury on Civilians

    German planes bring Franco's troops into southern Spain, where they advance to Badajoz, where thousands of civilians are machine-gunned inside a bullring

  • Lisbon Opens Door to German Arms for Nationalists

    Portugal allowed German ships to dock at Lisbon and from there dispatch war supplies into Nationalist territory

  • Nationalists capture Toledo, boosting morale

    Nationalists take the Republican stronghold of Toledo, 65km (40 miles) from Madrid, boosting morale
  • Period: to

    Siege of Madrid: Republican Leader Arrives, Luftwaffe Follows

    Republican leader General Jose Valeria reaches Madrid on 1 November. He is followed by German Luftwaffe 5 days later, and the Siege of Madrid begins

  • Japanese Victories in China's Capital Cities

    Japan captured Shanghai, Beijing, and Nanjing during the Second Sino-Japanese War

  • Nanjing Massacre: A Legacy of Brutality

    Japanese army massacres tens of thousands of people in Nanjing, China, during the Sino-Japanese War

  • Franco's Steel Storm: Assault on Basque Strongholds

    Franco switched his focus to attacking the industrial areas of northern Spain, such as the Basque region, a Republican stronghold
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    Second Sino-Japanese War

    In July 1937, following a clash between local Chinese Soldiers and Japanese forces in Beijing, full-scale war erupted. Japan seized swathes of northern and eastern China, including the KMT capital, Nanjing, installing puppet regimes. By 1941, much of central China was also under Japanese occupation. Although lacking training and equipment, Chinese nationalists refused to surrender.
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    Chongqing: KMT's Wartime Capital

    Chongqing was the provisional capital of the KMT during the Second Sino-Japanese War
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    Nanjing Massacre: Tragedy and Devastation in China

    Japanese soldiers brutally attacked the Chinese population of Nanjing. 260,000 - 350,000 people are killed and 20,000 - 80,000 women are raped

  • Guernica in Ruins: Photojournalists Capture War's Devastation

    Guernica is bombed by Italian and German aircraft on Franco's orders. The war is captured by photojournalists, and images of the devastation spread abroad.

  • Anarchist Bloodshed: Republican Infighting Sparks Deadly Chaos

    Infighting among Republicans leads to prominent anarchists being murdered. Rioting breaks out
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    Exodus from Shanghai: Air Raids Drive Thousands to Countryside

    Shanghai is attacked by the Japanese air force. Thousands flee to the countryside

  • Nationalists Reclaim Teruel: Republic Stumbles

    Nationalists retake the town of Teruel - a bitter blow for the Republicans
  • Period: to

    Cooperation Failed: Japan Wins Wuhan at Heavy Cost

    Despite cooperation between the KMT and CCP, Japan won the Battle of Wuhan but suffered huge casualties.
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    Ebro's End: Republicans Face Crushing Defeat

    At the Battle of Ebro, the Republicans are all but wiped out as a fighting force

  • Invasion of Poland

    Germany invaded Poland from the west on 1 September 1939 and besieged Warsaw with heavy aerial and artillery bombardment. The Soviet Union then attacked from the east. With the fall of Warsaw on 27 September, Polish independence was over and the country was divided between the two aggressors. At least 70,000 Poles lost their lives in 30 days.

  • The First Ghetto Rises in Poland

    The first ghetto in Poland was established
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    The End of the War

    By May 1937, internal conflict had broken out within the Republican groups in Barcelona. Losses at the battles of Teruel and Ebro further weakened the Republican army, and on January 26 1939, Franco's army seized Barcelona. Following further Nationalist victories in Catalonia and Vinaros, the Republic was all but destroyed. The Nationalists marched into Madrid on 27 March 1939, and Franco declared the war over on 1 April.
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    Soviet Conquest

    After Poland, Stalin invaded Finland. The Finns held out for some time, but by March 1940 were made to give up strategically important territories, leaving them bitter for revenge. In June 1940, Stalin annexed Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, countries that Hitler also wanted for Germany.
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    Ghettos

    Under Nazi occupation, Jewish people living in small towns and villages were transferred to ghettos set up within the cities. The Nazis established over 1,000 ghettos in Poland and the Soviet Union alone. Starvation and disease were rife due to food shortages and poor sanitation. In 1942, after the Nazis decided to kill the Jews, the Germans destroyed many of the ghettos and deported the Jews to death camps.
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    Political Control

    Navi Germany persuaded Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria to accede to the Tripartite Pact as Axis allies. In Slovakia, Norway, and Croatia, puppet regimes were installed - these countries had their government but with restricted autonomy and Nazi commissioners in residence. In unoccupied France, the Vichy regime was founded to accept the terms of a German-imposed armistice.
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    Manhattan Project

    Following the discovery of nuclear fission in 1938, the US set up a secret nuclear weapon programme code-named the 'Manhattan Project'. By 1945, their team of scientists had built three nuclear bombs. After successfully testing their first bomb on 16 July 1945 in Alamogordo, New Mexico, the US deployed the second and thrid bomb on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August. The unprecedented devastation caused by the bombs forced Japan's surrender in World War II.

  • Nationalists Take Madrid, Franco Declares Victory

    The Nationalists enter Madrid. On 1 April, Franco announces the end of hostilities

  • World War II Erupts: Germany Invades Poland, Britain & France Respond

    Germany invades Poland; Britain and France declare war on Germany 2 days later
  • Period: to

    Polish Outgunned in Warsaw Defense

    Polish forces attempt to defend Warsaw but are outgunned

  • Red Star Rises: Soviets Push East into Poland

    Soviet forces attacked Poland from the east

  • France Falls: Nazi Blitzkrieg Conquers Western Europe

    Germany invaded Belgium, the Netherlands, and then France; France surrenders in June

  • Fall of Norway: Two Months of Conflict Begin

    German forces enter Norwegian waters, starting a two-month conflict that ends in defeat for the Allies

  • The Greek Stand: Italy's Failed Invasion of 1940

    Italy attacked Greece via Albania, which it had annexed in 1939, but the invasion fails

  • Luxembourg Merges with Germany

    Luxembourg is absorbed into Germany
  • Period: to

    Skies Unsurrendered: Battle of Britain Thwarts Hitler's Invasion

    The Battle of Britain is fought between the British and German air forces, but the failure to defeat the British compels Hitler to abandon plans to invade England
  • Period: to

    Invasion of Scandinavia and the Low Countries

    In the spring of 1940, an emboldened Germany successfully invaded Denmark and attacked Norway with its navy and pioneering paratroop operations. In May, more than 2 million German troops on land and in the air invaded Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands
  • Period: to

    Dunkirk Evacuation: 335,000 Soldiers Saved

    335,000 British and French soldiers are evacuated from Dunkirk
  • Period: to

    The Fall of France

    France had fortified part of its border with the Maginot Line and sent its best armies into Belgium and the Netherlands to defend against German attack. German armoured forces cut them off and advanced through the Ardennes Forest behind them, and defeated the Allies at Sedan. It was a disaster. France, under a new leader, Marshal Philippe Petain, sued for an armistice on 17 June
  • Period: to

    Italy's Campaigns

    Italy invaded southern France in June 1940, keen to profit from German successors and to give Italy a place at any later peace conference. To gain control of the Mediterranean, Mussolini then attacked British and British Empire forces in North Africa and attempted to invade Greece. The Italians were repelled in both Egypt and Greece, and Hitler had to divert German troops in support of his ally.
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    Britain Under Attack

    Hitler's plans to invade Britain were scuppered when Germany failed to beat Britain in the skies in 1940. Hitler switched to bombing Britain's cities, but he abandoned the campaign in May 1941 in favour of invading the Soviet Union.
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    Labour Consription

    In all the countries occupied, Germany controlled labour and industry for its war effort; the free deployment of labour was prohibited. Labourers were issued with workbooks, and either worked in plants in the occupied countries or were sent to Germany. By the end of 1944, about 8.2 million foreign civilians and prisoners of war, as well as 700,000 concentration camp prisoners, were workers in the German Reich.
  • Period: to

    The Battle for Food

    At least 20 million people died of starvation during World War II. Hitler sought to create a Reich that was self-sufficient and independent of world trade. He regarded the whole of Eastern Europe as an industrial site and a food source and was prepared to let its people starve in his pursuit of Lebensraum (living space) for German-speaking peoples. In other parts of Europe, Jews and non-Germans were starved, either by deliberate German policy or by Allied blockades.
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    Eighty Percent of Belgian Children Strugle with Malnutrition

    Eighty per cent of Belgian children suffer rickets due to malnutrition

  • Operation Weserübung: Airborne Assault on Norway

    German paratroopers land in Norway. It is the first airborne attack in history

  • Fall of Paris: German Forces Enter the City

    German forces occupy Paris

  • France Clings to Sovereignty in Divided Land

    France signed an armistice that preserves a degree of sovereignty in unoccupied southern France, until Germany takes full control in November 1942 after losses in French North Africa
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    Luftwaffe Targets Airfields and Ports in Battle for Britain

    During the Battle of Britain, the Luftwaffe (German airforce) target airfields and ports along the English Channel
  • Period: to

    Blitz: Hitler's War on Britain's Cities

    Hitler bombs Britain's cities in an offensive known as "The Blitz"

  • Second Italian Offensive Stalled in Egypt

    A second Italian offensive into British-occupied Egypt is a failure

  • Allies Take Key Port of Tobruk from Italians

    Allied forces seized the key port of Tobruk from Italian forces

  • British Liberate Lebanon and Syria from Vichy France Threat

    British forces invade Vichy France-held Lebanon and Syria to prevent Axis forces from using them as bases from which to attack Egypt

  • Dutch Famine: 20,000 Dead After Produce Confiscation

    More than 20,000 Dutch people die of starvation after farmers are forced to hand over produce to Germany

  • Yugoslavia Coup Triggers German Invasion, Creates Puppet State

    An anti-Axis coup in Yugoslavia prompted Germany to invade the country and set up the "Independent State of Croatia" as a puppet

  • Chelmno: A Grim Dawn

    First death camp opens at Chelmno
  • Period: to

    Invasion of the Soviet Union

    Germany, along with its Axis allies, attacked the Soviet Union with 4 million troops, on a front of almost 1,000 miles. In 3 months, the invasion had almost reached Moscow and Leningrad, but here they failed to win complete victories. the advance was halted in December 1941.
  • Period: to

    Leningrad's 900-Day Ordeal: A City Under Siege

    The 900-day siege of Leningrad by German forces resulted in over 1 million civilian deaths
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    Mass Killings

    During the invasion of the Soviet Union, the Nazis deliberately slaughtered large groups of Jews. Einsatzgruppen (mobile killing units) followed the German army as it advanced; they went directly to the home communities of Jews and massacred them. Other massacres, such as Kragujevac in Serbia and Lidice in Bohemia-Moravia, were carried out as reprisals for the killing of Nazi officials by local resistance fighters.
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    Greece in the Grip of Famine: 300,000 Dead as War Chokes Nation

    Greece is plundered for the German war machine, and supplies are blocked by the British. An estimated 300,000 died of starvation by the end of the war
  • Period: to

    Soviet Captivity: A Tragedy of Starvation and Desperation

    Approximately 2.6 million Soviet prisoners died of starvation and disease in German captivity. The people of the occupied USSR are forced to eat dogs and rats, and cook their food in paraffin
  • Period: to

    Allies Crack German Grip on Tobruk

    The Allies take Tobruk in Libya and resist German attacks

  • Blitzkrieg Through the Balkans: Germany's Path to Greece

    Germany invades Yugoslavia, allowing it to attack, and ultimately seize Greece
  • Period: to

    Babi Yar Tragedy: 30,000 Lives Lost

    More than 30,000 Ukrainian Jews are shot in Babi Yar ravine
  • Period: to

    Red Tide Turns: Soviets Push Back at Moscow

    Soviet counter-offensives drive Axis armies back from Moscow

  • Kragujevac Massacre: 2,300 Lives Lost

    2,300 Serbian males are executed at Kragujevac

  • US Enters WWII After Pearl Harbor Attack

    The US enters the war as Japan attacked Pearl Harbour, Hawaii

  • Pearl Habour

    The Japanese planned an attack on the large base of the US Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbour, Hawaii, taking advantage of the US's unpreparedness for war. They sent a note to the Americans breaking off diplomatic relations, but it was delivered after the bombing. The attack was a total surprise to the Americans. The day after, the US and Britain declared war on Japan, and Hitler declared war on the United States on 11 December. The war had become a global conflict.

  • Pearl Harbor: Two Waves of Devastation

    Japanese torpedo bombers hit the American fleet in Pearl Habour, followed an hour later by a second wave to finish the attack
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    26,000 Jews Shot in Nazi Killing Spree

    At least 26,000 Jews were shot by German killing squads
  • Period: to

    A Wider War Begins

    Alongside the Pearl Harbour attack, Japan launched multiple campaigns. Hong Kong and the Pacific islands of Guam, Wake Island, and the Gilbert group fell in quick succession. The attacks continued in the Philippines and down the Malayan Peninsula with amazing speed, humiliating the British, Dutch, and Americans. In January, Japan took the Australian military base at Rabaul, New Guinea.
  • Period: to

    The Fall of Malaya and the Philippines

    To gain dominance in Asia, the Japanese needed to tackle the British presence in Malaya and the Americans in the Philippines. Striking first, they took Manila in January and Singapore in February. US and Filipino troops defended the Bataan Peninsula for 3 months before surrendering.

  • Guam Falls to Japan

    Japan captured Guam from the US

  • Gilbert Islands Captured by Japan

    Gilbert Islands fall to Japan

  • Formosa Invasion Force Lands in Philippines

    The main invasion force lands on Philippines from Formosa

  • Wake Island Succumbs to Second Japanese Assault

    Wake Island falls to the second Japanese attack

  • Hong Kong Falls to Japan

    Hong Kong surrenders to Japan

  • American Triumph at Midway Shifts Pacific Tide

    American naval victory in the Battle of Midway marks a turning point in the Pacific

  • Auschwitz: The Start of a Dark Chapter

    The mass murder of Jews began at Auschwitz as a part of Hitler's "Final Solution"

  • Quisling: From Nazi Pawn to Synonym for Traitor

    Vidkun Quisling, a Norwegian Nazi, is installed as head of a puppet regime. His name becomes synonymous with "traitor".

  • Operation Torch: Allied Landings in North Africa

    Allied forces made landings in Morocco and Algeria as part of Operation Torch, a campaign to take control of North Africa

  • Malta Liberated: Strategic Island Freed from Siege

    The Siege of Malta is finally lifted. Malta is strategically important for control of the Mediterranean

  • Allies Triumph at El Alamein

    The Allies won a clear victory over German-Italian troops at El Alamein

  • Gandhi's Call: British Exit India

    Gandhi calls for the British to leave India

  • Birthplace of the Atomic Bomb: Los Alamos Chosen

    Los Alamos was chosen as the site for the Manhattan Project
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    Operation Cartwheel

    In July 1942, the Allies began a campaign to neutralize Japan's main southern base at Rabaul, by gaining control of New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. By March 1943, they had secured the Japanese airfield on Guadalcanal Island, defeated the Japanese on land in eastern New Guinea, and won some important naval battles, giving them the initiative in the area.
  • Period: to

    Quit India Movement

    Gandhi was opposed to providing help to the British in World War II, as he did not believe India could fight for freedom while it was denied freedom. Many Indians disagreed with him and fought in the war. In 1942, Britain sent Stafford Cripps to negotiate India's support in return for more power for the Congress. Gandhi launched the Quit India Movement in response, demanding full independence.
  • Period: to

    Deportations

    Stalin enforced mass deportations of entire peoples deemed "anti-Soviet". These groups were relocated to underpopulated, inhospitable areas of the country. During World War 2, he deported about a dozen nationalities from western regions of the USSR to central Asia, accusing them of collaborating with the new invading Nazi army.
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    Germany Stumbles: Major Setbacks at Stalingrad & El Alamein

    Germany suffers a major setback at the Battle of Stalingrad, and also at El Alamein
  • Period: to

    The Battle of Stalingrad

    A new Axis offensive in 1942 brought them to the industrial city of Stalingrad. In one of the largest and bloodiest battles of the war, almost 800,000 civilians and soldiers were killed. It ended with a humiliating German surrender, and this marked a turning point in WWII.
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    Extermination Camps

    Dedicated death camps did not come into operation until 1942 when the Nazis implemented a policy to exterminate the Jews of Europe. Most victims were killed immediately upon their arrival, in the gas chambers, but a minority were kept as slave labour. Roma people, communists, homosexuals, and other "undesirables" were included in the mass murder.
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    Conquest of the Dutch East Indies

    The rubber and oil fields in the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia) made it a prime target. In February, Japan made a series of landings, at the same time bombing Darwin, Australia, to cut off Allied reinforcements. The Allies suffered defeat in a series of naval battles and failed to halt the Japanese advance.
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    Battle for the Atlantic

    Between 1942 and 1943, millions of tons of Allied shipping were sunk by the German submarine force or U-boats. Germany concentrated its attacks in the mid-Atlantic, out of range of Allied aircraft, but from 1943, Allied aircraft could fly long range and find the U-boats with radar; Germany was forced to withdraw.
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    The Mediterranean

    In 1942, the defeat of the Axis armies, under Erwin Rommel, at El Alamein in Egypt was a turning point for the Western Allies. They went on to invade Italian Libya and Sicily, then Italy itself in 1943. When the Italians surrendered, the Germans occupied Italy and continued the fight without their main ally until May 1945.
  • Period: to

    Birth of Rocket Power

    In 1942, a team of German scientists, led by Wernher von Braun, developed the V-2 rocket, the world's first long-range guided ballistic missile. During World War II, the Allies had bombed many German cities, so in retaliation, Germany launched a total of 3,172 V-2 rockets against Allied cities, in Britain, Belgium, France, and the Netherlands, killing 9,000 people. The rockets travelled so fast that the Allies were unable to shoot them down.

  • Manila Captured: Japan Takes Philippine Capital

    Manila falls to Japan
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    Conquest of Burma

    For Japan, taking Burma would cut off supplies to Nationalist China, opening the way for the Japanese to conquer all of China and place themselves at India's gate. After crossing Siam (Thailand), Japanese troops overcame the small British force in Burma and their Chinese allies by the end of May.

  • Rabaul: Japan's Southern Stronghold

    Japan takes Rabaul; it becomes their main southern base

  • Allies Storm Kwajalein Base

    Allies strike the Japanese base of Kwajalein

  • Singapore Surrenders to Japan

    Singapore surrenders to Japan, with the loss of 138,000 troops from the British Commonwealth

  • Darwin Bombed: 188 Japanese Planes Attack Australian City

    Darwin is attacked by 188 Japanese planes

  • Wake Island Raid: First of Many Allied Attacks

    Allied raid on Wake Island is the first of many

  • Rangoon Falls to Japan as British Retreat

    British retreat allows Japan to take Rangoon

  • Dutch East Indies Fall to Japan

    Dutch East Indies surrender to Japan

  • Japan Invades Burma: Troops Enter

    Japanese troops enter Burma

  • Doolittle's Daring Raid on Tokyo

    Lt Col Doolittle leads an American air raid on Tokyo in retaliation for Pearl Harbour
  • Period: to

    Allied Victories

    In May, Japan sent a large fleet to capture the Allied base of Port Moresby in New Guinea, a plan that the Allies thwarted in the Coral Sea. The Allies then deciphered Japanese signal codes that warned them of an attack on the US base on Midway Island. The ensuring battle was an important win for the US Navy and marked a turning point in the Pacific war.
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    Coral Sea Clash: Japan Foiled at Port Moresby

    In the Battle of the Coral Sea, Japanese ships suffered too much damage to continue the invasion of Port Moresby

  • Corregidor Falls: Last US Stronghold in Manila Bay Succumbs

    Corregidor Island in Manila Bay, the last US stronghold, falls
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    Japan's Fleet Decimated: 4 Carriers Lost in Major Defeat

    Japan suffers its first major reverse; four Japanese aircraft carriers are sunk
  • Period: to

    Aleutian Islands: Japan Occupies American Soil

    The Japanese took Attu and Kiska in the Aleutian Islands of Alaska, the only American soil they occupied
  • Period: to

    Stalingrad Triumph: Soviets Hold the Line, Axis Exhausted

    Soviet forces successfully defended Stalingrad city. Axis forces are left exhausted.

  • From North Africa to Italy: Allied Victories End Desert War, Open New Front

    Major Allied victories in North Africa enable the launch of Italy's invasion and end the Africa Campaign

  • From Sicily to Italy: The Allies Forge Ahead

    The Allies captured Sicily and prepare for the invasion of Italy
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    Island-Hopping in the Pacific

    The capture of Tarawa was the start of a US drive across the Pacific. Despite bitter resistance from Japanese soldiers, the US Marines took the Gilbert Islands, then the Marshalls, and then the large Japanese base at Saipan in the Marianas. The Japanese attempted to defend the Marianas at the Battle of the Philippine Sea but suffered a devastating defeat.
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    One-Third of Berlin Lays in Ruins After Bombings

    One-third of Berlin's houses were destroyed in a long bombing campaign by the Allies
  • Period: to

    The Nazi-Soviet Conflict

    After the defeat at Stalingrad in 1943, Hitler gambled on a huge tank battle to decimate the Russians at Kursk. The gamble failed; the Soviet army had a better command structure than the various Axis forces. The Soviet counter-advance into Romania and Hungary brought about the surrender of Hitler's allies.
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    Convoy Crippled: Allies Crack Codes, Sink Ships

    Allies bomb a Japanese convoy on its way to Rabaul after deciphering Japanese signal codes

  • 240,000 Axis Surrender in Tunisia

    240,000 Axis forces surrender in Tunisia

  • Donitz Retreats: U-Boats Withdraw from North Atlantic

    Admiral Donitz withdraws German U-Boats from the North Atlantic after huge losses
  • Period: to

    Red Tide Stops Axis Advance at Kursk

    Axis assault on Kursk is met with 1.3 million soldiers and 3,400 tanks from the Soviet Union; Axis forces are defeated

  • Italy Falls: Armistice Signed, Germans Occupy North

    Italy surrendered and signed an armistice; immediately after, German troops occupy the rest of Italy

  • Italy Falls: Surrenders to Allies

    Italy surrenders to Allied forces

  • Italy Enters the Fray: War Breaks Out Against Germany

    Italy declares war on Germany

  • Tarawa: A Bloody Landing for the Americans

    The Americans land on Tarawa but suffer heavy casualties

  • Anzio Landing and the Shadow of Monte Cassino

    Allies land at Anzio, Italy, and in March bomb a monastery at Monte Cassino, suspecting it to be a German observation post

  • Soviet Juggernaut Rolls Through Eastern Europe

    Soviet offensive gathers pace in Eastern Europe

  • 220,000 Jews Forcibly Removed from Budapest Homes

    More than 220,000 Jews were expelled from their homes in Budapest

  • Red Banner Across the Frontier: Soviet Army Enters Poland

    Soviet army crosses the old Polish border

  • Soviets Reach Vistula, Germans Dealt Massive Blow

    Soviet army reaches the Vistula River opposite Warsaw; the Germans suffer 850,000 casualties

  • London Devastated by V-2 Rocket Attacks

    V-2 rocket attacks resulted in about 3,000 fatalities in London and surrounding areas
  • Period: to

    Recovery of Burma

    For the Allies, the defeat of Burma had to be reversed to reopen the route to China. In 1944, seeing the British had strengthened their forces with vital air support, the Japanese took the offensive and advanced into India. The British-Indian, US, and Chinese forces pushed back the Japanese, and Burma was taken by the Allies in 1945.
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    Liberation of the Philippines

    The lengthy Allied operation to recapture the Philippines began with the landing of a large force from the 750 US ships in Leyte Gulf. The Japanese countered the invasion in Leyte Gulf with sea and air strikes, including kamikaze suicide tactics for the first time. Nevertheless, the overwhelming firepower of the US forces crippled the Japanese Imperial Navy.
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    Invasion of Normandy

    On June 6 1944, the Allies invaded northern France in what was the largest amphibious attack in history. Five Allied divisions landed on five-French beaches, but progress was slow because of thick hedgerows and a fierce German defence. With this invasion, the Allies forced Hitler to fight on two fronts; in both Western and Eastern Europe.
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    Strategic Bombing

    During 1944, the bombing of German cities became a significant strategy for the Allies. Attacks on oil supplies and oil fields devastated the German war effort. Some 400,000 German civilians were killed and many cities were annihilated. Hitler responded by firing V-I cruise missiles and V-2 rockets on London.
  • Period: to

    Imphal Stands: Japanese Siege Fails

    The Japanese besiege Imphal in India, but cannot capture it
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    Japan's Largest Offensive in China Begins in Henan

    Japan launched its largest military campaign in China - Operation Ichi-Go - to link its occupied territories, starting in Henan

  • From D-Day to Liberation: Allied Triumph in France

    D Day: the Allied invasion of France; Paris is liberated in August
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    Japan Devastated at Sea, Tojo Resigns

    Japan is defeated at the Battle of the Philippine Sea, losing more than 400 aircraft and 3 aircraft carriers; Japanese Prime Minister Tojo resigns

  • Operation Bagration: Stalin's Summer Offensive

    Stalin ordered Operation Bagration, a massive offensive into the Baltic states and Western Poland

  • Paris is Free! City Celebrates as German Garrison Surrenders

    Paris is liberated after the German garrison there finally surrenders

  • 60,000 US Troops Storm Leyte

    60,000 US troops land on Leyte Island

  • IMF Created: Shaping Global Finance

    The International Monetary Fund (IMF) was founded

  • Kyiv's Rise: Industrial Powerhouse After WWI

    After World War 1, Kyiv became a major industrial centre.

  • Fall of the Axis: Berlin Taken, Hitler Dead, Mussolini Executed

    Russians reach Berlin; Hitler commits suicide, Mussolini is killed by Italian partisans

  • Atomic Dawn: The Nuclear Arms Race Begins

    The US dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki starting the nuclear arms race
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    Iwo Jima and Okinawa

    The capture of Iwo Jima and Okinawa, two islands south of Japan's main islands, provided the Allies with forward bases from which they could bomb or invade Japan. By taking Okinawa, the Allies also cut off Jappan's supply lines from its territories in Southeast Asia. These battles were some of the bloodiest in the Pacific theatre of war, with Japanese suicide attacks reaching their peak and thousands of lives lost on both sides.
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    Japan Under Attack

    Once Iwo Jima was captured, America began incendiary bomb attacks on Japan's major cities, hoping to pound Japan into surrender without risking Allied lives in an invasion. In August, this culminated in the dropping of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, killing tens of thousands of civilians in an instant. The Soviets joined the war against japan in Manchuria, and the Japanese emperor announced surrender soon afterwards.
  • Period: to

    Fighting Resumes

    The communists gained much from the Japanese occupation of China (1937 - 1945); they developed their guerilla warfare methods and seized weapons from the Japanese. When the civil war resumed in 1945, the CCP used these advantages to move south and seize territory, including the major cities of Luoyang and Kaifeng. By 1948, they controlled over one-third of China.
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    Tensions Rise as USSR Holds Ground in Iran After Allied Withdrawal

    Allied forces withdrew from Iran, but the USSR refuses, raising tensions
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    Indonesia

    The Indonesian National Party proclaimed the country's independence from the Netherlands on 17 August 1945. After much fighting between the two countries, as well as a communist insurrection, independence was achieved on 27 December 1949, although constitutional links remained with the Dutch crown until 1956.
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    French Indochina

    At the end of the Japanese occupation in 1945, the Viet Minh nationalist independence coalition, led by Ho Chi Minh, occupied Hanoi and proclaimed a provisional government. The French tried to restore colonial rule, leading to war in 1946. They were defeated, and on 20 July 1954, they were granted independence to Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam.
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    The Origins of the Union

    Post-war discussions between six Western European nations led to the founding of the ECSC in 1951. It merged the coal and steel industries of France, West Germany, Italy, and the three Benelux countries. The six went further in 1957 and set up the EEC and Euratom. The Soviet bloc equivalent was the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON).
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    Germany on the Ropes

    In the last months of the war, despite tough resistance, Germany suffered only defeats. American troops crossed the Rhine into Germany in March 1945 and proceeded to capture Hanover and Nuremberg. Meanwhile, Soviet forces launched a huge offensive through Poland and eventually captured Berlin on 30 April.
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    Rocket Development

    More than 100 German scientists, including von Braun, surrendered to the US after Germany's defeat in World War II. Many were hired to work on the US weapons programme. The USSR, meanwhile, took over Germany's V-2 production facilities. Both the emerging superpowers then raced to be the first to develop intercontinental ballistic missiles and space rockets. In 1957, the USSR opened the world's first space launch facility, Baikonur Cosmodrome.
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    Nuclear Proliferation

    Determined to match the US's nuclear firepower, the USSR tested its first nuclear bomb in 1949. The two superpowers went on to enlarge their stocks of nuclear weapons and also developed an even more powerful thermonuclear bomb. Several other countries also acquired nuclear weapons. In 1968, many countries signed a treaty to curb the spread of nuclear weapons.

  • Warsaw Liberated by Soviet Troops

    Soviet troops liberated the Polish city of Warsaw

  • Liberation at Auschwitz: Soviet Troops Open the Gates to Freedom

    Auschwitz was liberated by Soviet troops
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    Firestorm in Dresden: A Controversial Tragedy of WWII

    The Allies firebombed Dresden, devastating the city and killing thousands of civilians in one of the most controversial acts of World War II

  • US Captures Mount Suribachi on Iwo Jima in Bloody Battle

    US forces capture Mount Suribachi on Iwo Jima amid frenzied fighting; 23,000 Japanese die on the island

  • Manila Liberated: US Secures City After Month-Long Battle

    Manila is secured by the US after a month-long battle
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    Tokyo Firestorm: Tragedy in the Skies

    334 American B-29 planes drop incendiary bombs on Tokyo; 80,000 civilians die in the firestorm

  • Allies Unite: Soviet and American Troops Meet at the Elbe

    Soviet and American troops meet at the River Elbe. Both allies fought on until unconditional surrender from Germany

  • British-Indian Forces Reclaim Rangoon

    British-Indian Amry captures Rangoon

  • VE Day: Unconditional Surrender Ends WWII in Europe

    VE Day: the Germans surrender to the Allies unconditionally

  • New Mexico Shaken by First Nuclear Blast

    The first nuclear bomb test was carried out in New Mexico. The blast is felt more than 160km (100 miles) away and the mushroom cloud reaches a height of 12km (7.5 miles).

  • Hiroshima: 80,000 Killed in Atomic Bomb Attack

    On August 6, 1945, the US dropped the atomic bomb "Little Boy" on Hiroshima, resulting in the immediate death of 80,000 and a significant historical shift.

  • Nagasaki: "Fat Man" and the End of the War

    The US dropped a second atomic bomb, "Fat Man," on Nagasaki, killing another 74,000 and marking the end of World War II.

  • The End of World War II: VJ Day and Japan's Surrender

    VJ Day: Japan formally surrenders following the destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
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    Gandhi Mends Broken Harmony in Noakhali and Tippera

    Gandhi tried to restore communal harmony in contested Noakhali and Tippera
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    Turkey Resists Soviet Straits Pressure, Turns to US

    The USSR attempted to force Turkey to allow it to freely use the Turkish Straits, Turkey refuses, and looks to the US for support
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    War with France

    In 1941, the Vietnamese revolutionary Ho Chi Minh, in exile in China, organised the pro-communist Viet Minh nationalist movement to fight for an independent Vietnam. At the end of World War II, Ho returned home and declared Vietnam an independent republic on 2 September 1945. The French colonial rulers attempted to re-establish their control, leading to a lengthy civil war that started in 1946.

  • Haiphong Bombing Sparks First Viet Minh Offensive

    The French naval bombardment of Haiphong precipitated the first Viet Minh attacks against the French
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    Partition and Independence

    The British Labour government favoured Indian independence and tried to establish a unified independent state. But faced with rising Muslim agitation for an independent Pakistan, they partitioned India. After much violence, India and Pakistan achieved independence on 15 August 1947. The British colonies of Burma and Ceylon received independence in 1948. By 1950, all the princely states had joined India or Pakistan.
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    Palestinian Migration

    The birth of Israel ended the Palestinians' dream of their own state. During the 1948 Palestine War, up to 600 Palestinian villages were sacked by Israeli forces. As a result, more than 700,000 Palestinians - 80 per cent of the total Palestinian population in Israel - fled their homes and went into exile in neighbouring countries. The exodus is known as 'al-Nakbah', or "the catastrophe".

  • GATT Treaty Spurs Trade for Post-War Recovery

    The GATT treaty (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) was formed to boost economic recovery

  • Mao's Mountain War: Communists' Guerrilla Campaign in Manchuria

    Communists use guerrilla tactics to wear the KT down in Manchuria

  • The Fall of Democracy: 1948 Czechoslovak Coup d'état

    Czechoslovak coup d'état

  • Gaza Strip falls under Egyptian control.

    Gaza Strip falls under Egyptian control after the 1948 war

  • Tel Aviv: The Unofficial Capital of Israel

    Tel Aviv becomes the de facto Israeli capital, although many official buildings are in Jerusalem
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    Communist Victory

    As the CCP advanced, the KMT retreated to the south. Many were not prepared to surrender, and the KMT won several battles. However, the CCP slit the KMT forces into small groups, weakening them. By January 1949, the Kuomintang were forced to withdraw from Beijing. Mao declared the People's Republic of China in October 1949, and by 1950 the CCP had seized Hainan Island and Tibet.
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    Berlin Blockade: USSR Severs West Berlin's Lifeline

    The USSR cut off transport links into West Berlin during the Berlin Blockade
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    Malaya

    The Japanese occupation of Malaya (1942 - 1945) stirred up nationalist sentiment, prompting the British to set up the federation of Malaya in 1948. The federation united the territories and guaranteed the rights of the Malay people. It granted full independence in 1957. In 1963, the new state of Malaysia was formed, including the Federation of Malaya and the British colonies of Sarawak, Sabah, and Singapore.
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    Apartheid

    In 1948, the white governments of South Africa introduced a policy of apartheid ("separateness"), which institutionalized white supremacy and discrimination against black people. Some of the black population was relocated to so-called "tribal homelands". After intense internal resistance, apartheid was abolished in 1994, when free elections resulted in victory for the black majority.
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    Israel

    The state of Israel was founded on 14 May 1948. In response, five Arab neighbours - Transjordan, Syria, Lebanon, Egypt, and Iraq - invaded. Israel fought back, forcing out the Arab forces. It also enlarged its territory by one-quarter, seizing 50 per cent of the area allocated to an Arab state. A series of ceasefires from January to March of the following year ended the First Arab-Israel War.

  • Tragedy in Delhi: Gandhi Assassinated

    Gandhi assassinated at Birla House

  • Marshall Plan Aids Post-War Recovery

    The Marshall Plan is rolled out accordingly to which the US offers financial assistance to post-war economies

  • Giant Falls: KMT Crushed Despite Having Larger Army

    Despite having a larger army, the KMT suffered a quick defeat
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    Berlin Blockade: A Cold War Crisis and Airlift

    The first major crisis of the Cold War occurred - Stalin blockaded Berlin; an effort from various countries to save Berliners from starvation

  • Jinzhou: Turning Point for CCP Control of the Northeast

    The battle of Jinzhou is a turning point in the civil war; leads to CCP control of the northeast

  • Divided City: Jerusalem Between Israel and Jordan

    Jerusalem divided between Israel and Jordan

  • Taiwan

    Guanzhou was the last stronghold of the Kuomintang. After it fell to the Communist Party on 14 October 1949, 1.2 million people fled to the island of Formosa (Taiwan), 160km (100 miles) off the coast of China. Kuomintang leader Chiang Kai-shek left for the island on 12 December 1949 and set up the Republic of China.

  • Mao's Grip Tightens as Hangzhou Falls

    As cities such as Hangzhou fell to the CCP, Mao swiftly sends in officers to oversee a smooth takeover

  • Mao Captures Shanghai, Secures Rural Support

    Mao had the support of rural China but needed to capture the cities. Shanghai falls with relatively little collateral damage

  • Nuclear Dawn: USSR's First Atomic Test

    USSR conducts its first nuclear bomb test at the Semipalatinsk Test Site
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    Foundation of NATO

    In the wake of World War II, in 1949, the US, Canada, and 10 European nations signed the North Atlantic Treaty, which established NATO. It was a defensive military alliance, which promised to provide mutual assistance if one nation were to be attacked. Greece and Turkey joined in 1952, West Germany in 1955, and Spain in 1982. After the end of the Cold War, NATO expanded into eastern Europe to become an alliance of 29 states.
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    New Guinea

    After occupation by Australia in World War 1, the northeastern half of New Guinea became an Australian mandate. It remained under Australia's control til 1975 when it became independent as Papua New Guinea. Western New Guinea had been a Dutch colony, but in 1963 it became part of Indonesia under the name Irian Jaya.

  • Communist Victory Sways 500,000 KMT Troops

    Communist victory at the Battle of Tianjin persuades 500,000 KMT troops to switch sides

  • KMT Crushed in Battle of Beijing

    Battle of Beijing is a major defeat for the KMT

  • US and Western Nations Forge Alliance in NATO

    NATO is formed between the US and other Western nations

  • Arms Race Rises as Soviet Union Detonates First Nuke

    The Soviet Union tested its first nuclear bomb and the arms race escalates

  • China Reborn: Mao Declares People's Republic

    Mao announces the establishment of the People's Republic of China

  • Famine

    While famine has affected parts of the continent for centuries, from the 1950s increasingly severe desertification; the effects of climate change, such as droughts; and problems caused by civil war caused by famine to become more frequent across much of Africa. Millions have died, despite the intervention of international ai agencies.

  • Nevada: Ground Zero of 900+ Nuclear Tests

    Nevada Test Site has been used for more than 900 nuclear tests

  • Argentina's Low Birth Rate Slows Population Growth

    Argentina has one of the continent's lowest population growth rates due to its low birth rate
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    Wars by Proxy

    The US and the USSR never fought each other directly during the Cold War, as the nuclear stockpiles amassed by each side kept the two power blocs at peace, in a state of permanent deterrence. However, both tried to increase their influence by intervening in conflicts, disputes, and civil wars around the world, notably in Berlin (1948 - 1949), Korea (1950 - 1953), Angola (after 1961), Cuba (1962), and Vietnam (1946 - 1975).
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    A Divided Peninsula: The Korean War

    Korean War
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    The North Korean Attack

    At dawn on 25 June 1950, North Korean troops launched a surprise attack across the 38th parallel against South Korea, rapidly capturing the South's capital, Seoul, and reaching almost to the south coast. By mid-September 1950, South Korea was reduced to a small pocket of land in the southeast corner of the peninsula known as the Pusan Perimeter.
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    The UN Response

    In response to the North Korean invasion, the UN Security Council, boycotted by the USSR, recommended member states support South Korea. In September 1950, UN troops led by US General MacArthur landed in Inchon and then Pusan, in the south. Fearing encirclement, the North's troops withdrew. The UN troops then headed north to recapture the capital of Pyongyang and the nearest Chosan on the frontier with China.
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    The Chinese Invasion

    China warned the US that it would intervene to support North Korea if troops crossed the 38th parallel. After UN troops crossed the divide, Chinese volunteers began to cross the frontier in October 1950. The main Chinese army crossed the border in November and pushed the UN forces southwards, retaking Seoul and establishing a new frontline across the south of the peninsula.
  • Period: to

    The Americas

    In this period, two-thirds of the total population of the Americas lived in just three countries: the US, Mexico, and Canada. Both the US and Canada supported immigration, increasing their populations, while emigration from the Caribbean islands kept their populations static.
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    Africa

    Africa's population increased rapidly from 229 million people in 1950 to 630 million in 1990. As it rose, it overtook the combined population of the Americas and, by 2000 Europe. Africa's countries were among the poorest in the world. Where people subsisted on the land, the population could outstrip land productivity and availability of clean water. Since 2000, Africa has experienced the world's fastest urbanization.

  • From Talks to Pact: The Warsaw Pact's Formation

    The USSR and its affiliated communist nations in Eastern Europe began talks for forming the Warsaw Pact, ultimately signed in May 1955.

  • Jordan Claims West Bank After 1948 War

    Transjordan (renamed Jordan in 1949) takes control of the West Bank after the 1948 war, annexing the territory in 1950

  • Korea Divided: North Invades South with Soviet Backing

    The Korean War begins; North Korea invades the South, with Stalin's support

  • UN Forces Land at Inchon, Push North After Recapturing Seoul

    40,000 UN troops plus 7,000 South Korean troops launched an amphibious assault at Inchon and bombard the city before recapturing Seoul and heading north

  • North Korean Invasion Halted at Pusan Perimeter

    The southern limit of North Korea's invasion ends just west of Pusan

  • Northward Bound: US Troops Break Out of Pusan Perimeter

    US troops head north from the Pusan Perimeter
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    UN Land Reinforcements in Pusan, Bolstering Defenses

    UN reinforcements arrive from Japan and land in Pusan

  • Pyongyang Falls to UN Forces

    Pyongyang is captured by UN forces

  • UN Reaches Sinuiju Outskirts in Korean War Push

    An area just outside of Sinuiju was the furthest advance of UN troops towards the Chinese border
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    UN Forces Encircled at Chosin Reservoir

    UN forces are encircled by Chinese troops at the Battle of Chosin Reservoir

  • Viet Minh Crack Open Border, Seek Weapons from China

    Viet Minh seized French border posts to open up access to weapons from communist China

  • French Halts Viet Minh Advance at Vinh Yen

    French won the battle at Vinh Yen after a string of Viet Minh victories under General Giap
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    Stalemate

    In the second half of January 1951, UN forces responded to the Chinese invasion, successfully containing two major Chinese attacks before launching a successful push northwards in May 1951. What had been a mobile war now became static, and by November 1951 the war stabilized along a defensive line slightly north of the 38th parallel. Limited fighting continued for 2 years until July 1953, when a ceasefire was agreed.
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    Canada's Population Doubles Under Pro-Immigration Policies

    Pro-immigration policies more than double Canada's population

  • Six Nations Sign Treaty of Paris, Forge ECSC

    The Treaty of Paris, signed by six nations, sets up the ECSC

  • Operation Hurricane: The First British Nuclear Test

    The first British nuclear test was conducted on the Montebello Islands, Australia

  • H-Bomb on Elugelab: US Tests Its Fusion Power

    The US tests its first thermonuclear bomb on the island of Elugelab

  • Turmoil in Iran: A Coup d'État Unleashes Uncertainty

    Iranian coup d'état

  • Divided at the 38th Parallel: Armistice Ends Korean War

    An armistice line is established close to the 38th parallel

  • US Intervention in Guatemala: A Coup in the Shadows

    The US secretly backs a Guatemalan coup d'état to remove a socialist leader

  • Vietnam Divided: A Nation Split in Two

    Vietnam was divided in two at the Geneva Accords, with both parts being granted independence
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    Mao's Advance: Taiwan Stands Firm with American Aid

    Led by Mao Zedong, Chinese communist forces attacked Taiwan. Taiwan receives support from the US
  • Period: to

    The Fight for Unity

    In 1954, the French signed the Geneva Accords, agreeing to the independence of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. Vietnam was divided, with Ho Chi Minh ruling the communist north from Hanoi, and a republic ruling the Western-backed south from Saigon. Elections to unify the country were to be held in 1956, but South Vietnam refused to take part. Viet Minh fighters launched an insurgency to unify the country.
  • Period: to

    Guatelama

    Guatemala, led by Juan Jose Arevalo and Jacobo Arbenz, was initially governed by pro-communist policies based on Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal. In 1954, the US-funded an invasion to overthrow the government, installing dictator Carlos Castillo Armas. Guerrilla activity escalated in the 1960s, leading to a civil war that ended in 1996.

  • US Detonates its H-Bomb at Bikini Atoll

    US conducts thermonuclear test at Bikini Atoll
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    Dien Bien Phu: French Fall to Viet Minh

    French suffer a massive defeat at the hands of the General Giap and the Viet Minh at Dien Bien Phu
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    French Defeated

    In 1954, the French enticed the Viet Minh into fighting a major battle. They occupied an old military base at Dien Bien Phu and supplied it by air, believing the Viet Minh to have no anti-aircraft guns. General Giap then encircled the French forces and used his heavy artillery to cut off their airborne supplies, forcing them to surrender.

  • Dien Bien Phu Falls: French Defeated in Key Battle

    French lost a decisive battle at Dien Bien Phu

  • Guatemala Invaded: CIA-Backed Force Takes Control

    A CIA-funded force of 480 men invade Guatemala

  • Divided at 17: Geneva Accords Split Vietnam

    Geneva Accords divide Vietnam along the 17th parallel

  • From Ashes to Abundance: Japan and Germany Rise After War

    Japan and Germany both experienced exceptional economic growth despite the effects of war
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    CENTO

    In 1955, Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey, and the UK set up a Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) originally known as the Baghdad Pact. Modelled on NATO, the organization's goal was to contain the USSR by linking the states that bordered it to the south. The organization was largely ineffectual and collapsed after the Iranian revolution in 1979.
  • Period: to

    A Nation Divided: The Vietnam War

    Vietnam War
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    Foundations of the Warsaw Pact

    The Warsaw Pact was established by the USSR and seven eastern European allies in May 1955 in response to a re-armed West Germany joining NATO. The forces collaborated only once, intervening to end the Prague Spring uprising, which occurred in Czechoslovakia in 1968. The Warsaw Pact collapsed at the end of the Cold War in July 1991.

  • 16 Teams Clash in Inaugural European Cup

    The 1955–56 European Cup featured sixteen teams, including Milan, AGF Aarhus, Anderlecht, Djurgården, Gwardia Warszawa, Hibernian, Partizan, PSV Eindhoven, Rapid Wien, Real Madrid, Rot-Weiss Essen, Saarbrücken, Servette, Sporting CP, Stade de Reims, and Vörös Lobogó. The first match took place on September 4, 1955, with Sporting CP securing a 3-3 draw.

  • Hungarian Uprising of 1956

    Hungarian Uprising

  • Ballon d'Or: Football's Golden Touch

    The Ballon d'Or is an annual football award presented by France Football since 1956. It was temporarily merged with the FIFA World Player of the Year between 2010 and 2015. Originally limited to European players, it was expanded to include all players at European clubs and worldwide in 2007. Lionel Messi and Cristiano Ronaldo have won the award five times, while Johan Cruyff, Michel Platini, and Marco van Basten have won it three times each.
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    Soviets Reach Space

    The USSR had early victories in the Space Race. On 4 October 1957, it became the first country to launch an artificial satellite into space. Named 'Sputnik I', the satellite orbited Earth for 3 months. In April 1961, the USSR launched its first manned space rocket, 'Vostok I', which took cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin into space and made him the first human to orbit the Earth. In May 1961, President John F Kennedy responded by declaring that the US would put the first man on the moon.
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    Novaya Zemlya: Ground Zero for 220+ Nuclear Tests

    More than 220 tests are conducted at Novaya Zemlya

  • Rome Treaties Sign European Economic and Atomic Integration

    Treaties establishing the EEC and Euroatom are signed in Rome

  • Sputnik: 98 Minutes to Orbit History

    The USSR launched the world's first man-made satellite, 'Sputnik I'; it takes 98 minutes to orbit Earth

  • EU to Rotate Capital Cities, Starting with Brussels

    Struggling to agree on a capital city for the EU, members decide to rotate cities, starting with Brussels
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    Race to the Moon

    Stung by Soviet success in 1957, the US made its mark in space with the launch of the satellite 'Explorer I' in February 1958. Later that year, the US created the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), an agency devoted to space exploration. During the 1960s, the US and USSR raced to be the first nations to send a manned mission to the Moon. The US claimed this victory in July 1969, when Neil Armstrong became the first human to set foot on the Moon.

  • A Symbol of Peace: The Birth of the CND and its Iconic Emblem

    The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) is formed; its iconic emblem became one of the most recognised in the world

  • Revolution in Syria: A Day of Change

    14 July Revolution in Syria

  • North Vietnam Seizes Lao Provinces

    North Vietnamese take control of the Lao provinces of Phong Saly and Sam Neua
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    Ho Chi Minh Trail: A Lifeline for North Vietnamese Forces

    Ho Chi Minh Trail allows communist forces to transport supplies from North Vietnam to the south

  • Cold War Escalates: US Spy Plane Down in Soviet Airspace

    A US spy aircraft is shot down in Soviet airspace

  • Democratic Republic of Congo

    DR Congo's independence in 1960 led to crises, with Katanga provinces attempting to secede and Prime Minister Lumumba seeking USSR support. The US encouraged Kasa-Vubu to dismiss Lumumba, leading to a coup and the installation of a new government. Joseph-Desire Mobutu, the army chief of staff, took power in 1965 and ruled the country as a dictator, renaming it Zaire in 1971.

  • Nigeria and Botswana

    Several African states have enjoyed great success following their independence. Nigeria, rich in natural resources, is a major oil exporter and was the 23rd richest country by GDP in the world in 2017. Since independence in 1966, Botswana has been consistently democratic and it is now one of the fastest-growing economies. In 2015, Botswana's spending on education was 8 per cent of its GDP, one of the highest rates in the world.

  • Earth's Population Hits 3 Billion Milestone

    The total human population reaches the 3 billion mark

  • Brazil's Population Boom Slows as Prosperity Takes Hold

    Brazil's rate of population increase begins to decline as rising prosperity causes a fall in birth and death rates
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    Guatemala Erupts: Civil War Breaks Out

    Civil war breaks out between the Guatemalan government and left-wing groups
  • Period: to

    Niger's Population Soars: From 1.7 Million to 20.67 Million in Decades

    Niger's population of 1.7 million rises to 20.67 million due to a fertility rate of more than 7 births per woman
  • Period: to

    Katanga declares independence from Congo

    Katanga secedes from the Congo

  • East vs. West in Angola: Cold War Takes on African Independence

    Western and communist countries began to support different factions fighting for Angolan independence from Portugal
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    Dominican Republic

    After the assassination of dictatorial President Rafael Trujillo in 1961, a left-wing democratic government under Juan Bosch led the Dominican Republic. Bosch was overthrown in a military coup in September 1963, by a pro-Bosch revolt soon broke out. Concerned that this situation was similar to events in Cuba, US President Lyndon Johnson sent in troops to crush the uprising and allow a repressive government to take power.

  • The First Human in Space: Yuri Gagarin and Vostok 1

    Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human to travel to space in his spacecraft, 'Vostok I'.

  • Bay of Pigs: Cuban Exiles' Failed Invasion

    Cuba exiles supported by the CIA attempt to invade Cuba at the Bay of Pigs

  • Freedom 7: Shepard Makes History as First American in Space

    Alan Shepperd, 'flying on Freedom 7', becomes the first American in Space

  • Kennedy Aims for the Moon: Pledges to Land Man in Next Decade

    US president John F. Kennedy pledges to the American public to put the first man on the moon

  • Berlin Wall Construction Begins with Barbed Wire

    Barbed wire is put up as the first stage of construction of the Berlin Wall, which splits east Berlin from west

  • Brink of Catastrophe: The Cuban Missile Crisis

    The world comes close to nuclear war during the Cuban Missle Crisis

  • Cuban Missile Crisis

    In 1959, Fidel Castro took power in Cuba, and the US initially accepted his regime. However, Cuba's relationship with the USSR soured, leading to diplomatic cutoffs in 1961 and attempts to overthrow Castro through the failed Bay of Pigs invasion. In 1962, a blockade around Cuba was imposed due to Soviet nuclear missiles, threatening global nuclear destruction. The blockade was lifted after a compromise between the US and the USSR.

  • USSR Builds Cuban Missile Bases: A Cold War Flashpoint

    The USSR built missile bases in Cuba

  • A Silent Spring: Rachel Carson's Book Leads to DDT Ban

    Publication of 'Silent Spring' by American biologist Rachel Carson leads to a ban on the insecticide DDT after Carson links it with Cancer and damage to the environment

  • Cuban Missile Crisis Pushes World to the Brink of Nuclear War

    The Cuban Missle Crisis begins - a tense stand-off between the US and USSR in Cuba brings the world to the brink of Nuclear war

  • Naval Blockade Imposed on Cuba by US

    The US enforced a naval blockade of Cuba

  • Task Force 136 Tightens Grip on Cuba with Blockade Patrols

    US Task Force 136 patrols the seas in a blockade of Cuba

  • Netherlands gives Irian Jaya to Indonesia

    Netherlands hands over Irian Jaya to Indonesia

  • China's Nuclear Era Begins at Lop Nor

    China carries out its first nuclear test at Lop Nor. A total of 48 tests are conducted from 1964 to 1996

  • India's Green Revolution: From Scarcity to Abundance

    India begins a Green Revolution to overcome poor agricultural productivity, leading to massive population growth

  • US Expands Anti-Communist Support in Southeast Asia

    Reports of North Vietnamese attacks on US warships in the Gulf of Tonkin prompt the US to support any Southeast Asian country fighting "communist aggression"
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    War with the US

    In 1964, a reported North Vietnamese attack on US ships in the Gulf of Tonkin led the US to commit ground forces in Vietnam in 1965. They heavily bombed the north, but the North Vietnamese were skilled guerrilla fighters, who infiltrated the south along the Ho Chi Ming and Sihanouk trails. US bombers secretly extended the war to Cambodia and Laos, home to the communist Pathet Lao group.
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    US Bombers Hit Laos in Pathet Lao Guerrilla Fight

    US bombers attack areas of Laos held by pro-Viet Minh Patet Lao guerrillas

  • Marines Land in Da Nang to Guard Air Base

    First US forces arrive at Da Nang, ostensibly to protect its air base

  • Leonov Takes the First Historic Steps in Space

    Soviet cosmonaut Alexei Leonov makes the first spacewalk in history, beating American rival Ed White by almost 3 months

  • From Colony to Republic: Singapore's Journey to Independence

    Having joined Malaysia in 1963, Singapore then left to become an independent island republic in 1965

  • Israel's Nuclear Program: Claims and Denials

    Many countries claim that Israel created its first nuclear weapon in December 1966. Israel denies this allegation
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    Sihanouk Trail: Another Lifeline for Communist Forces

    The Sihanouk Trail, like the Ho Chi Minh Trail, allowed communist forces to transport supplies
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    US Supports Khmer Republic in Cambodian Civil War

    The US backed the Khmer Republic during the Cambodian Civil War
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    Expansion of the Union

    In 1967, the ECSC, EEC, and Euratom were merged into the European Communities (EC). The UK, Ireland, and Denmark (including Greenland) joined in 1973, Greece in 1981, and Spain and Portugal in 1986 - the latter three being former dictatorships. East Germany joined when it merged with West Germany in 1990. In 1986, the Single European Act set up a single market for goods and services.
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    The Six-Day War

    Threatened by increasing pressure from its Arab neighbours, including an Egyptian naval blockade in the south, Israel responded in June 1967 with a surprise attack. It destroyed the entire Arab Air Force on the ground and Egypt's tanks in the Sinai. Israeli troops captured the Sinai Peninsula, as well as the West Bank and Golan Heights.

  • Prague Spring Crushed by Soviet Invasion

    Prague Spring uprising crushed
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    Major Offensives

    Two major North Vietnamese offensives in 1968 and 1972 seriously weakened US forces. First was the Tet Offensive in January 1968, in which the Viet Cong, or National Liberation Front (the Viet Minh's successor forces based in South Vietnam), struck more than 100 towns and were fought with many casualties. The Easter Offensive of 1972 saw the regular North Vietnamese army launch three attacks against the South Vietnamese army.
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    Hue's Bloody Battle: Viet Cong, South Vietnam & US Clash in City Siege

    Viet Cong and South Vietnamese with US forces fight a long and bloody battle at Hue

  • My Lai Tragedy

    Notorious massacre of 300-500 South Vietnamese civilians by US soldiers in My Lai

  • Nuclear Powers Pledge Disarmament in Treaty

    The Non-Proliferation Treaty was signed to make countries holding nuclear weapons commit to a cautious undertaking to disarm

  • One Giant Leap for Mankind: Armstrong Walks on the Moon

    American astronaut Neil Armstrong becomes the first man to walk on the Moon; the historic event is watched live on television worldwide

  • East Africa

    From 1970 - 1993, Eritrea fought a long war to free itself from Ethiopia, which had taken control of it following World War II. It eventually won its independence, becoming a one-party repressive state. South Sudan fought for independence from Sudan from 1989 - 2005, becoming the world's newest state in 2011 when it peacefully gained independence. Central government in Somalia has collapsed since 1991 as rival warlords and Islamic groups have battled for control.

  • ESA's First Satellite Takes Flight from Kourou

    The European Space Agency (ESA) launches its first satellite from the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana
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    Chile

    In 1970, Salvador Allende became the President of Chile - the first Marxist to be elected through open elections. Opposition groups soon declared his rule unconstitutional, and he was overthrown by General Augusto Pinochet in a military coup supported by the CIA in 1973. Pinochet's anti-communist dictatorship was marked by numerous human rights violations, but he held on to power until 1989.
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    The Middle East

    With smaller local populations and rapid economic growth, the oil-rich countries of the Middle East, notably the Gulf States, solved their labour shortages by mass immigration. The population of many countries doubled from 1970 - 2000. The United Arab Emirates' population saw the highest percentage increase in the world, multiplying by over 12 times from its 1970 level (from just under 250,000 people to 3 million).
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    Exploding Growth: Nigeria's Population Triples in Three Decades

    Nigeria's population rises threefold from 55 million to 151 million
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    Great Lakes Region

    The conflict has affected much of the Great Lakes region. In 1979, Tanzania invaded Uganda to expel the tyrannical leader Idi Amin, after he tried to annex the Kagera Region in Tanzania. In Rwanda and Burundi, rivalry between two ethnic groups, the Hutu and the Tutsi, has led to ongoing conflict. A genocidal attack by Hutus against Tutsis in Rwanda in 1994 resulted in up to 1 million deaths. Many refugees fled to the DR Congo, where fighting continued.
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    Reunification

    Negotiations between the US and North Vietnam led to the Paris Peace Accords of January 1973 and resulted in US forces leaving Vietnam. Without US support, South Vietnam was quickly overrun by Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces. With the fall of Saigon in 1975, Vietnam was now unified under the control of the North.
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    From Crisis to Change: Oil Shock Sparks New Economic Era

    The oil crisis created a global recession, leading to a new economic policy

  • Egypt Reclaims Sinai: Suez Canal Crossed, 1967 Land Regained

    Egyptian forces cross the Suez Canal and retake ground lost in 1967
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    The Yom Kippur War

    In retaliation for their defeat in the Six-Day War, Egyptian and Syrian forces launched a surprise attack on Israel on the Jewish holiday of Yom Kippur. Egypt made early gains, crossing the Suez Canal, while Syrian forces advanced over the Golan Heights. Israel counterattacked by crossing the Suez Canal and reaching within 104km (65 miles) of Cairo. A ceasefire was arranged by the UN, with forces pulling back the next year.

  • Golan Heights Reclaimed: Israelis Approach Damascus

    Israelis retake Golan Heights and reach within 56km (35 miles) of Damascus

  • Israelis Advance Deep into Egypt After Counterattack

    Israelis counterattack across the Suez Canal and advance 104km (65 miles) towards the Egyptian capital of Cairo

  • Milestone Moment: Earth Reaches 4 Billion People

    Earth hits 4 billion people worldwide

  • From Colony to Nation: The Path of East Timor

    Indonesia occupies the Portuguese colony of East Timor, which gained independence in 2002
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    Angola: Civil War Erupts as Rival Armies Clash for Power

    Civil war engulfs Angola as rival armies fight for control

  • Saigon Falls: North Vietnam Claims Victory

    North Vietnamese take Saigon
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    Cricket World Cup: From England's Turf to Global Stage

    The first World Cup was held in England in 1975, with the first ODI cricket match played four years earlier. The first three World Cups were held in England, and since 1987, hosting has been shared between countries under an unofficial rotation system. The first three World Cups were held in England, and since 1987, fourteen ICC members have hosted at least one match in the tournament.

  • G6 Nations Unite to Boost International Trade

    Italy, France, Germany, Japan, Britain, and the US formed a Group of Six (G6) to develop international trade
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    Four Bantustans Claim Independence from South Africa

    Four tribal homelands (Bantustans) became nominally independent from South Africa

  • Ho Chi Minh City Rises: Communist Vietnam's New Capital

    Saigon is renamed Ho Chi Minh City and became the capital of unified communist Vietnam
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    Proxy War in the Horn: Somalia vs. Ethiopia

    Formally USSR-backed Somalia invaded communist Ethiopia. The USSR and Cuba support Ethiopia, and Somalia gains assistance from the US
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    Panama

    Us relations with Panama had been difficult due to American ownership of the Panama Canal Zone since 1903. A treaty was eventually signed in 1977 to hand over the zone by 1999, but in 1989 American troops invaded Panama to seize leader General Manuel Noriega after he was indicted by federal grand juries on charges of drug trafficking, racketeering, and money laundering.
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    Eastern Asia

    East Asia includes the world's two most populous nations: China and India. While India's growth rate remained high, China reduced its growth with its one-child policy, implemented in 1978 - 1980, which charged a fee to parents having a second child. It abolished the policy in 2016 as it faced the growing problem of a population with too many men (since the policy led to parents favouring male children) and too many old people.
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    China's One-Child Policy: A Nation's Population in Flux

    China implements a one-child policy to reduce its rapid population growth

  • Tanzania Retaliates: Invasion Follows Amin's Land Grab

    Tanzania invades Uganda after its leader, Idi Amin, makes territorial claims against Tanzania

  • Moves Towards Peace

    In 1979, Israel signed a peace treaty with Egypt and handed back the Sinai Peninsula. The 1993 Oslo I Accord created a Palestinian government, the Palestinian Authority, which was given some jurisdiction in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. Israel withdrew from Gaza but has been reluctant to relinquish Jerusalem and the West Bank.

  • The Iranian Revolution

    Resistance against the autocratic rule of the Shah of Iran led to demonstrations in the holy city of Qom in 1977 and 1978. Riots soon spread to the capital, Tehran, with demonstrators calling for the return of the exiled Shia religious leader Ayatollah Khomeini. The Shah eventually fled Iran in January 1979; Khomeini set up a religious government, one of two theocracies in the world alongside the Vatican City.

  • Iran after the Revolution

    The new government of Iran, led by Ayatollah Khomeini, became the world's first Shia government. It adopted strong anti-American and anti-Israeli policies and supported radical Shia groups, such as Hezbollah in Lebanon and, more recently, pro-government forces fighting in the Syrian civil war.
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    Nicaragua

    Installed with US support in 1927, the Somoza family ruled Nicaragua until it was ousted by the socialist Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) in 1979. At first, the US supported the new government, but it suspended aid in 1980 when it came to light that Nicaragua was arming rebels in El Salvador. Under President Ronald Regan, the CIA supported the Contra rebels who were fighting the Sandinista government. The FSLN were defeated at the polls in 1990.
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    Sinai Reunited: Egypt Reclaims Peninsula

    The Sinai Peninsula returned to Egyptian control

  • Khomeini Returns from Exile

    Exiled religious leader Ayatollah Khomeini returns from Paris

  • Geneva Hosts First World Climate Conference

    The first World Climate Conference was held in Geneva

  • Europe's First Direct Vote: Strasbourg 1979

    First direct elections were held in the European Parliament in Strasbourg
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    Poland

    In 1980, after a wave of strikes against economic mismanagement, an independent trade union called Solidarity was set up to demand reform. General Jaruzelski's government imposed martial law in 1981 and arrested Solidarity's leaders. Following further strikes, the government was forced to allow partially free elections in 1989, which was won by Solidarity. Lech Wałęsa, Solidarity's leader, then won the first free presidential election in December 1990.
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    The Iran-Iraq War

    In September 1980, Iraq's leader, Saddam Hussein, attacked Iran to secure the Shatt al-Arab waterway and the oil-rich province of Khuzestan, at the head of the Gulf. Iraq was supported by the US and USSR, as well as most Arab nations, while Iran fought alone. A UN-brokered ceasefire ended the war in August 1988.

  • US Hostage Rescue Helicopter Crashes in Tabas

    A US helicopter, used to rescue 63 hostages held in the US embassy in Tehran, crashes in Tabas

  • Iraqi Offensive Makes Headway in Gulf Region

    Initial Iraqi attacks gain territory at the head of the Gulf

  • US Troops Deploy to Honduras

    The US established a military presence in Honduras
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    Iraq's Chemical Assault on Iran and Kurds

    Iraq uses chemical weapons against Iranian and Kurdish targets, harming more than 1000,000 people

  • US Ousts Grenada's Revolutionary Government

    The US intervenes in Grenada to oust the island's revolutionary government

  • Brunei: From British Protectorate to Independent Sultanate

    Brunei gained independence from the UK as an independent sultanate

  • China's Economy Booms: Phenomenal Growth Observed

    Phenomenal growth is seen in China's economy
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    Contra Offensive: US-Backed Rebels Strike Nicaragua

    Contra rebels, who are largely based in Honduras, attack the Nicaraguan Sandinista government. They are funded by the US

  • Iran Claims Territory in Northern Iraq Following Counteroffensive

    Iran seizes Iraqi territory in the north in a successful counter-offensive
  • Period: to

    A Song of Hope: Band-Aid and Live Aid Unite Against Famine

    Massive famine in Ethiopia prompts singers Bob Geldof and Midge Ure to organise Band-Aid and Live Aid to raise money for relief

  • Borderless Europe: Schengen Agreement Unites Nations

    Schengen Agreement abolishes internal border checks across most of the EU

  • Four Freedoms Secured: Single European Act Signed in Luxembourg

    Single European Act, signed in Luxembourg, establishes the four freedoms of movement for capital, labour, goods, and services

  • Turkey's Path to Europe: Membership Application and Customs Union

    Turkey applies for the EC membership; it enters into a customs union with the EU in 1996

  • Child Soldiers in Uganda: LRA's Cruel Weapon

    Lord's Resistance Army uses child soldiers to fight the government of Uganda

  • Earth Reaches 5 Billion: A Milestone in Human History

    Earth hits 5 billion people worldwide

  • Bulgaria's Exodus: From Communism to Depopulation

    Bulgaria's population begins declining as communism falls and economic migrants start leaving the country
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    Hungary

    Hungary had pursued a policy of economic and political liberalization since 1962. In 1989, the government removed restrictions on other political parties, reconstituted the ruling Communist Party as the Hungarian Socialist Party, and renamed the People's Republic of Hungary the Republic of Hungary. In May 1990, it called for free elections. These were won by a right-of-centre democratic coalition.
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    Germany

    After World War II, Germany was split into communist East and democratic West. In 1989, mass demonstrations against communist rule forced the East's government to move towards democracy, while the opening of the Berlin Wall in November of that year caused a mass exodus to the West. Free elections in March 1990 were followed by the reunification of Germany in October 1990.
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    Romania

    The overthrow of communism in Romania was marked with great violence. On 15 December 1989, the government, led by Nicolae Ceaușescu, attempted to arrest Pastor Laszlo Tokes, a champion of the Magyar minority, prompting a national uprising while Ceaușescu was in China. He returned but failed to restore order, and he was executed on Christmas Day 1989. Democratic elections were held in May 1990.
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    Bulgaria

    The hardline policies of Todor Zhivkov, Bulgaria's communist leader, led to mounting opposition in Bulgaria, forcing him to resign in November 1989. The one-party system was abolished the following month, but the free elections held in June 1990 were won by the former and now-renamed communist party. A further election in October 1991 saw the election of a democratic coalition of non-communist parties.
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    Slovenia

    The ethnically homogenous Slovenia became a parliamentary democracy in 1989. In 1990, 88 per cent of the electorate voted for independence from Yugoslavia. On 25 June 1991, Slovenia declared its independence. The Yugoslav army invaded and fought a 10-day war in June and July, ending with Slovenian victory. The short conflict marked the start of the Yugoslav Wars.

  • Eritrea's Rising Population: 3.2 Million Strong Despite Repression

    Eritrea has a rising population of 3.2 million, despite mass emigration due to a repressive government
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    Kosovo

    The Majority Albanian Kosovo declared its independence in 1990, but it did not receive international recognition. The Kosovo Liberation Army began to fight the Serbs in 1995, leading to a full-scale war in February 1998. More than one million Albanian Kosovars fled and thousands more were killed before a NATO bombing campaign in 1999 forced Serbian forces to depart.
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    The Gulf War

    To recoup financial losses incurred by the war in Iran, Saddam Hussein invaded oil-rich Kuwait on 2 August 1990, claiming it as a rightful part of Iraq. Arguments over financial repayments to Kuwait by Iraq, and illegal Kuwaiti oil drilling, added to the tension. The Iraqi invasion quickly succeeded, but January 1991, a coalition of 29 countries, led by the US, attacked the Iraqis and expelled them from Kuwait in February during Operation Desert Storm.
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    US Foreign-Born Population Soars to 40 Million

    The foreign-born population of the US doubles from 20 million to 40 million due to immigration

  • Freedom Dawns: Namibia's Historic Independence from South Africa

    South Africa finally relinquished control over Namibia, the last colony in Africa

  • Iraq Seizes Kuwait

    Iraq invades and occupies Kuwait

  • From Sick Man to Powerhouse: Germany's Rise After Unification

    East and West Germany unite, and Germany begins its rise from being the 'sick man of Europe' into an economic powerhouse.

  • Two Somali States Declare Independence

    Somaliland and Puntland both declared their independence from Somalia

  • Commonwealth of Independent States

    When the USSR collapsed in 1991, the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was set up as a loose confederation of former Soviet republics to coordinate trade, finance, and security. The Baltic states refused to join, leaving nine members. Turkmenistan and Ukraine failed to ratify the founding charter.
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    West Africa

    West Africa's states are among the weakest on the continent, and civil wars and coups have afflicted the region. In 1989, the warlord Charles Taylor overthrew the government of Liberia and then intervened in the civil war that broke out in Sierra Leone in 1991. Fighting soon spread to Guinea. British troops intervened in Sierra Leone to support the government, ending the civil war in 2002. Taylor was later charged with war crimes.
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    Yugoslavia Splits: Seven New Nations Rise

    Yugoslavia breaks into seven independent states
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    New Nations

    The collapse of communism saw the emergence of many new, smaller nations. The USSR broke up into 15 independent republics in 1991, while wars in Yugoslavia caused the country to split into seven new nations between 1991 and 2008. 1 January 1993, the two halves of Czechoslovakia separated peacefully becoming the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
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    The Final Breakup

    Unlike other former republics, Macedonia achieved its independence peacefully in September 1991, with the Yugoslav army withdrawing 9 months later. Serbia and Montenegro formed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1992 and renamed Serbia and Montenegro in 2003. In June 2006, Montenegro became independent from Serbia. Finally, Kosovo declared itself independent from Serbia in 2008.
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    Croatia

    On 25 June 1991, Croatia declared independence. Many Serbs living in Croatia opposed this and sought a new Serb state within Yugoslavia. Serbian forces invaded in July but failed to occupy Croatia. Serbs in Croatia then founded Krajina. Warfare continued until 1995, when Croatia regained most of its lost territories, with Eastern Slavonia returning by 1998.
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    No-Fly Zone Protects Kurds Fleeing Persecution

    A no-fly zone was established by Allied coalition in northern Iraq to protest the Kurds (a minority in Iraq, Iran, and Turkey), who were fleeing from prosecution, from Iraqi air attack

  • Scud Strikes Hit Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and Qatar

    Iraqi scud missiles fired at targets in Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and Qatar

  • Allied Forces Strike Iraq from the Seas

    Allied air strikes against Iraq were launched from ships in the Red Sea and Mediterranean

  • Baltic States Opt Out of CIS, Denouncing Soviet Occupation

    Baltic states refused to join the CIS as they consider their membership of the USSR to have been an illegal occupation

  • Macedonia Declares Independence

    Macedonia (known officially as the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, in recognition of Greece's dispute over its name) declares independence
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    Growth of the EU

    The Maastricht Treaty, signed in 1992, took European integration further. It launched its plans for economic and monetary union, leading to a single currency and the euro. It marked the end of the EC and the start of the EU. Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined in 1993, followed by an influx of 10 new states from Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean in 2004. Bulgaria and Romania followed in 2007, and Croatia in 2013, bringing EU membership up to 28 states.
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    The Bosnian War

    Multi-ethnic Bosnia declared its independence on 3 March 1992 but was opposed by Bosnian Serbs under Radovan Karadžić. Muslim enclaves in eastern Bosnia were soon overrun by Serbs, who ethically cleansed the region and besieged Sarajevo. At the same time, Bosnian Croats fought to take over Mostar. The war ended in March 1994, but it took NATO air strikes in 1995 to end the Serbian attacks. The Dayton Accords, a peace treaty signed in December 1995, partitioned the country.
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    Bosniak Muslims Ethnically Cleansed, Held and Killed in Camps

    Many Bosniak Muslim areas are ethnically cleaned by Serb forces, with Muslims held and killed in concentration camps

  • From EC to EU: The Maastricht Treaty's Transformation

    Maastricht Treaty turns the EC into the EU
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    Sarajevo Endures 1,425-Day Siege

    First Yugoslav, then Serbian, forces besieged Sarajevo for 1,425 days; thousands of civilians and soldiers are killed

  • Earth Summit: Governments Unite on Climate Change

    At the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, governments agreed on the United Framework Convention on Climate Change

  • The Velvet Divorce: Czechoslovakia Splits Peacefully

    Czechoslovakia splits amicably into the Czech Republic and Slovakia
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    Tensions in Mostar: Stari Most Destroyed in Fighting

    Tensions between Croats and Bosniaks in Mostar lead to intense fighting; the famous Stari Most bridge is destroyed

  • A Century of Scars: Rwanda's 100-Day Tragedy

    Up to 1 million Tutsis killed by Hutus during the 100-day genocide in Rwanda

  • Russia's Population Shrinks: A 15-Year Decline Begins

    Russia's population begins a 15-year decline due to low birth rates and high death rates
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    Haiti

    The lengthy Duvalier family dictatorship was toppled in Haiti in 1986. in 1990, the radical priest Jean-Bertrand Aristide won the presidential election, but a military coup soon forced him out. the brutality of the military regime, along with the threat of a US invasion, brought Aristide back to power in 1994. His second term, which began in 2000, was ended by a US-backed coup in 2004, leading to Aristide's exile.

  • Israel hands Jericho over to the Palestinian Authority

    Israel begins partial withdrawal from the West Bank by handing Jericho over to the Palestinian Authority

  • Kosovo Conflict Erupts: KLA Launches Offensive

    The Kosovo Liberation Army begins to attack Serb forces

  • Operation Flash: Croatian Forces Reclaim Western Slavonia

    Croat forces seize Western Slavonia from the self-declared Republic of Serbian Krajina during Operation Flash

  • Srebrenica: 8,000 Lives Lost in Bosnian Serb Massacre

    8,000 Bonsiak men and boys massacred by Bosnian Serbs in Srebrenica

  • Krajina Reclaimed: A Turning Point in the Bosnian War

    Croat and Bosnian forces retake the Republic of Serbian Krajina during Operation Strom - the largest land battle since World War II
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    Hong Kong and Macao

    In 1997, with the end of Britain's 99-year lease on the New Territories, Hong Kong was handed back to China. Portugal then returned Macao to Chinese rule in 1999, abolishing the last remaining European colony in Asia. The age of European colonisation in Asia was now over.

  • Kyoto Protocol: Developed Nations Aim for 5% Carbon Reduction by 2012

    Under the Kyoto Protocol, developed nations pledged to reduce carbon emissions by an average of 5 per cent by 2008 - 2012.

  • Eastern Slavonia: Serbian Kajina's Last Stand Returns to Croatia

    Eastern Slavonia, the final remnant of Serbian Kajina, returned to Croatia
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    70,000 Lives Lost in Eritrea-Ethiopia Clashes

    70,000 killed in border clashes between Eritrea and Ethiopia

  • Kosovo exodus intensifies: 250,000 Serbs flee for Serbia

    Ethnic cleansing of remaining Serb families in Kosovo intensifies; up to 250,000 leave the country for Serbia

  • Earth Reaches 6 Billion: A Milestone Moment

    Earth hits 6 billion people worldwide

  • Panama Takes Back the Helm: US Hands Over Canal Control

    The US returns control of the Panama Canal Zone to the government of Panama

  • British Troops Bolster Sierra Leone's Elected Leader

    British troops intervene in Sierra Leone to support the elected president

  • Israel Starts Building West Bank Wall for Security

    Israel begins construction of a border wall in the West Bank to protect itself from Palestinian attacks

  • 9/11: A Day of Tragedy and Resilience

    On September 11, 2001, four coordinated terrorist attacks by al-Qaeda devastated the United States. Hijacked planes struck the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and a field in Pennsylvania, resulting in nearly 3,000 casualties and forever altering the nation's course. The attacks triggered the War on Terror, heightened security measures, and left an indelible mark on the world, forever remembered for the immense loss and enduring spirit showcased in the aftermath.
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    War in Afganistan

    The Afghanistan War, from 2001 to 2021, aimed to dismantle the Taliban regime and prevent terrorist groups. Initially successful, it became a long-term counterinsurgency effort characterized by corruption, political instability, and civilian casualties. The Taliban reclaimed control in August 2021, raising concerns about human rights and stability.

  • The Euro

    The Euro first came into circulation in 2002, replacing 12 national currencies. By 2018, it was used in 19 of the 28 member states, as well as Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, and Vatican City, in several European overseas territories, and in Kosovo and Montenegro, both of which are outside the EU.

  • Sunni Iraqis Resist Allied Occupation

    Sunni Iraqis launch resistance against Allied occupying troops
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    The Iraq War

    After the Gulf War, continued international pressure was put on Iraq. The US believed that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction, despite assurances from UN arms inspectors to the contrary. Together with the UK and others, US forces attacked Iraq in March 2003. Saddam Hussein was overthrown and eventually executed by the Iraqi government in 2006. Iraq soon collapsed into a sectarian civil war.

  • Desert Storm Begins: Land Forces Join Kuwait Offensive

    Allied land forces attack Iraq from Kuwait

  • Slovenia: First Former Yugoslav Republic Joins EU

    Slovenia becomes the first part of former Yugoslavia to join the EU

  • Nigeria: West Africa's Economic Engine

    Nigeria accounts for almost 50 per cent of West Africa's GDP

  • Japan's Population Shrinks: Births Fall Below Deaths

    Japan's birth rate falls below its death rate

  • Israel withdraws from Gaza Strip

    Israel withdraws unilaterally from the Gaza Strip

  • Montenegro Forges New Path: Independence, NATO, and EU

    Montenegro becomes independent from Serbia and later applies to join both NATO and the EU

  • North Korea Conducts First Nuclear Test

    North Korea carries out its first nuclear test
  • Period: to

    The Domino Effect: Global Financial Crisis Starts in US

    A global financial crisis, which began in the US, brings many of the world's financial systems close to collapse.

  • Nobel Prize for Climate Change: IPCC and Al Gore Honored

    The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) and former US vice-president Al Gore received the Nobel Peace Prize for their work on climate change

  • Lisbon Treaty: Reshapes EU & Opens Exit Door

    The Treaty of Lisbon reforms the legal structure of the EU and provides a mechanism for countries to leave the union

  • China's Economic Boom Leaves a Trillion Yuan Environmental Scar

    China's economic growth inflicts more than a trillion Yuan's worth of damage on its environment each year, increasing pressure on planners to slow China's breakneck speed of development

  • China Now World's Top Greenhouse Gas Emitter, But US Still Leads Per Person

    China overtakes the US as the world's biggest greenhouse gas emitter - although the US remains well ahead on a per-capita basis

  • UAE: Magnet for Migrants Worldwide

    The United Arab Emirates has the highest net immigration rate in the world

  • South Sudan: A Nation Still Searching for Peace

    Since independence, South Sudan has endured civil war and ethnic violence
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    Syria's Exodus: 4 Million Flee Civil War

    Syria's population falls by 4 million as refugees flee the civil war

  • 7 Billion Strong: Earth Reaches Population Milestone

    Earth hits 7 billion people worldwide

  • Japan: A Greying Nation

    Japan has the world's oldest rapidly ageing population, with over-65s representing more than one-quarter of the total population

  • Global Wealth Hits $280 Trillion Mark

    Total global wealth reaches US$280 trillion

  • Global Unity Rises Despite US Withdrawal from Climate Accord

    Nations unite in their commitment to tackle global warming after US pulls out of the Paris Climate Accord
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    COVID-19: A Global Respiratory Illness

    COVID-19, a global respiratory illness, emerged in late 2019 and has since spread globally. It has been declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern by the World Health Organization. Symptoms range from fever to pneumonia, respiratory failure, and death. Despite no cure, vaccines and treatments exist to prevent serious illness.

  • War in Ukraine: A Humanitarian Crisis Unfolds

    The Russo-Ukrainian War is an ongoing international armed conflict that began on February 24, 2022, with the invasion of Ukraine by Russia, which had been militarily intervening in Ukraine since 2014. The invasion has resulted in Europe's largest refugee crisis since World War II, with more than 8 million Ukrainians fleeing the country. The war has also caused a significant humanitarian crisis, with millions of Ukrainians in need of food, water, and shelter.

  • 8 Billion Strong: Earth Reaches New Population Milestone

    Earth hits 8 billion people worldwide

  • Israel invasion of Palestine

    In 2023, a war broke out between Israel and Palestinian militants, particularly Hamas and the Palestinian Islamic Jihad. The attack on October 7, 2023, resulted in over 1,200 deaths, mostly civilians, and 248 hostages taken by Hamas. The United Nations held an emergency meeting to discuss the situation, and the UN Secretary-General called for a humanitarian ceasefire to prevent further loss of life.