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Publication of John Locke's "Two Treatises of Government,"
outlining the concept of natural rights and the right to revolution against tyrannical rulers, marking a significant early Enlightenment text. -
Isaac Newton publishes "Principia Mathematica,"
The Principia appeared in three editions during Newton's lifetime: the first in 1687, with a print run of 300--400 copies; this was followed by the 1713 edition, revised, amended, and expanded by the author; which in turn was followed by the 1726 edition, revised by Newton and edited by Henry Pemberton. -
Publication of Montesquieu's "The Spirit of Laws,"
advocating for separation of powers in government, a core principle of Enlightenment thought. -
The American Declaration of Independence,
heavily influenced by Enlightenment ideas, particularly Locke's natural rights theory, is signed, marking a major political application of Enlightenment philosophy. -
Royal treasury empties
creates severe financial strain in France, setting the stage for revolution. -
The French Revolution begins
driven by Enlightenment ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity, leading to significant societal changes and the overthrow of the monarchy. -
Estates-General convenes
the Third Estate (common people) demanding greater representation. -
Tennis Court Oath
where the Third Estate declares themselves the National Assembly and vow to continue meeting until a new constitution is drafted. -
Storming of the Bastille prison in Paris
marking a pivotal moment in the revolution. -
Declaration of the Rights of Man of the Citizen is adopted
outlining fundamental rights for all citizens. -
Women's March on Versailles
forcing the royal family to return to Paris. -
Royal family attempts to flee France but is captured
The King was transferred to the Tuileries Palace, before attempting to flee in June 1791. Arrested in Varennes, he was brought back to Paris. -
September Massacre
where large numbers of prisoners are killed in Paris prisons. -
Battle of Valmy
a key victory for the French Revolutionary army, solidifying the new republic. -
Execution of King Louis XVI.
he was tried by the revolutionaries. The monarchy was formally abolished, and “Year I” of the French Republic was declared. Louis XVI died at the guillotine. -
Committee of Public Safety takes control of the government
initiates rain of terror -
Execution of Marie Antoinette
Marie Antoinette's trial began on 14 October 1793; two days later, she was convicted by the Revolutionary Tribunal of high treason and executed by beheading by guillotine -
Execution of Maximilien Robespierre
Robespierre and a number of his followers were arrested at the Hôtel de Ville in Paris. The next day Robespierre and 21 of his followers were taken to the Place de la Révolution, where they were executed by guillotine before a cheering crowd. -
Italian Campaign Begins
Napoleon launches his successful military campaign in Italy, solidifying his reputation as a skilled commander with victories like the Battle of Lodi and Arcole, leading to the Treaty of Campo Formio with Austria. -
Egyptian Expedition
The Egyptian Expedition was a military expedition dispatched by the United States to Egypt during the 1882 Anglo-Egyptian War to protect American citizens and property. -
Coup d'état and Consulate
Following his return from Egypt, Napoleon orchestrates a coup d'état, becoming the First Consul of France, establishing a new government with centralized power. -
Napoleon Bonaparte overthrows the Directory establishes the Consulate, marking the end of the French Revolution.
He establishes the Consulate, marking the end of the French Revolution. -
Coronation as Emperor
Napoleon declares himself Emperor of the French, signifying the start of the First French Empire, marking a significant expansion of his power and influence. -
Battle of Waterloo
After a series of military campaigns across Europe, Napoleon is finally defeated by the Allied forces led by Wellington at the Battle of Waterloo, marking the end of his reign and exile to Saint Helena.