Theodoric the Great establishes the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy.
527
Justinian I ascends as Byzantine Emperor, later initiating major legal and architectural reforms.
711
The Islamic conquest of the Iberian Peninsula begins.
732
Battle of Tours – Charles Martel halts the northward advance of Islamic forces
800
Coronation of Charlemagne as Emperor by Pope Leo III, uniting much of Western Europe.
843
Treaty of Verdun divides the Carolingian Empire among Charlemagne’s grandsons.
962
Otto I is crowned Holy Roman Emperor, reinforcing the idea of a revived Western Empire.
1054
The Great Schism formally splits Christianity into Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox branches.
1066
Norman Conquest of England – William the Conqueror defeats Harold II at Hastings.
1095
Pope Urban II calls for the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont.
1099
Crusaders capture Jerusalem during the First Crusade.
1122
Concordat of Worms resolves the Investiture Controversy between the papacy and the Holy Roman Emperor.
1122
Concordat of Worms resolves the Investiture Controversy between the papacy and the Holy Roman Emperor.
1147
Launch of the Second Crusade.
1187
Battle of Hattin – Saladin defeats Crusader forces and recaptures Jerusalem.
1190
Beginning of the Third Crusade, led by figures such as Richard the Lionheart.
1215
Signing of the Magna Carta in England, laying foundations for constitutional governance.
1229
End of the Albigensian Crusade with the Treaty of Paris, curbing heresy in southern France.
1241
Mongol forces invade Eastern Europe (e.g., Battle of Legnica), affecting European political dynamics.
1265
Simon de Montfort’s Parliament in England becomes an early model of representative government.
1274
Second Council of Lyons discusses Church reforms and attempts at reuniting Eastern and Western Christianity.
1302
Pope Boniface VIII issues the papal bull Unam Sanctam, asserting papal supremacy.
1315
The Great Famine begins in Europe, severely impacting population and society.
1347
Outbreak of the Black Death in Europe, drastically reducing the population.
1378
Beginning of the Western Schism, splitting the Catholic Church with rival popes.
1415
Execution of Jan Hus at the Council of Constance, sparking early reformist movements.
1417
The Western Schism comes to an end with the election of a single pope.
1453
Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire.
1455
Gutenberg prints the first Bible, revolutionizing the spread of knowledge with movable type.
1492
Christopher Columbus’s voyage leads to the European discovery of the Americas
1494
Treaty of Tordesillas divides the New World between Spain and Portugal.
1517
Martin Luther nails his 95 Theses to the church door in Wittenberg, sparking the Protestant Reformation.
1521
The Diet of Worms condemns Martin Luther’s teachings.
1527
Sack of Rome by the troops of Charles V, symbolizing the decline of papal political power.
1534
Henry VIII’s Act of Supremacy establishes the Church of England.
1543
Copernicus publishes On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres, marking a shift in scientific thought.
1545
The Council of Trent commences, launching the Counter-Reformation within the Catholic Church.
1555
The Peace of Augsburg establishes the principle of cuius regio, eius religio in the Holy Roman Empire.
The Spanish Armada is defeated by England, altering the balance of naval power in Europe.
The Defenestration of Prague sparks the Thirty Years’ War across Central Europe.
The English Civil War begins, leading to significant shifts in power and governance
English Civil War begins
The Peace of Westphalia ends the Thirty Years’ War and lays the groundwork for modern state sovereignty.
The Glorious Revolution in England establishes a constitutional monarchy.
The English Bill of Rights is enacted, reinforcing parliamentary power and individual rights.
The Acts of Union unite England and Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain.
The Treaty of Utrecht ends the War of Spanish Succession, reshaping the balance of power in Europe.
Death of Louis XIV marks the end of an era of absolute monarchy in France
The Treaty of Utrecht ends the War of Spanish Succession, reshaping the balance of power in Europe.
The Seven Years’ War begins, a global conflict that reconfigures colonial empi
The Battle of the Plains of Abraham decisively influences the fate of New France in North America.
The approximate beginning of the Industrial Revolution, heralding vast economic and social changes.
The American Revolutionary War begins.
The American Declaration of Independence is adopted. Adam Smith publishes his magnum opus ‘An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations’ .
The Treaty of Paris ends the American Revolutionary War.
The French Revolution begins, radically transforming French society and politics.
The French National Assembly adopts the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
Napoleon Bonaparte seizes power in France during the coup of 18 Brumaire.
Napoleon crowns himself Emperor of the French.
The Battle of Austerlitz results in a decisive Napoleonic victory.
The British Parliament passes the Slave Trade Act, abolishing the slave trade in the British Empire.
The Mexican War of Independence begins against Spanish colonial rule.
Napoleon invades Russia, a campaign that ultimately weakens his army.
Napoleon abdicates, and the Congress of Vienna convenes to redraw the map of Europe
The Battle of Waterloo marks Napoleon’s final defeat and ends the Napoleonic Wars.
The Greek War of Independence begins; simultaneously, the Mexican War of Independence concludes
