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Early Foundations of Instructional Media
As Saettler (1968) has indicated, these museums “served as the central administrative unit[s] for visual instruction by [their] distribution of portable museum exhibits, stereographs [three-dimensional photographs], slides, films, study prints, charts, and other instructional materials” (p. 89). (Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2018, p. 9) -
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The Popularization of Behavioral Objectives
The popularization of behavioral objectives began with early 20th-century advocates, gaining momentum with Ralph Tyler’s work in the 1930s and Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives in 1956. In 1962, Robert Mager’s book on writing objectives made the concept widely accessible, emphasizing clear, measurable goals in instructional design. These developments solidified the use of behavioral objectives as foundational elements in educational planning and evaluation. -
Early Advocacy for Objectives
Educators like Bobbitt, Charters, and Burk advocate for the use of clear objectives in education, laying the groundwork for later development of behavioral objectives. (Gagné, 1965a, Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2018, p. 14) -
The Visual Instruction Movement and Instructional Films
The introduction of the motion picture projector being used in schools -
The Growth, or Lack thereof, visual instruction movement
Thomas Edison professes, “Books will soon be obsolete in the schools. . . . It is possible to teach every branch of human knowledge with the motion picture. Our school system will be completely changed in the next ten years” (cited in Saettler, 1968, p. 98) -
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The Visual Instruction Movement
This is a period where we see teacher-training institutions began offering courses in visual instruction. (Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2018, p. 9) -
Visual Instruction - Limited Impact
Due to the complexity and costs of visual instruction, this movement didn't develop the way in which Edison had envisioned. (Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2018) -
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Audiovisual Instruction Movement and Instructional Radio
During the 1920s and 1930s, technological advancements in radio broadcasting, sound recordings, and sound motion pictures fueled the growth of instructional media, transitioning the visual instruction movement to the audiovisual instruction movement. -
Advancements in Audiovisual Media
Advancements in radio, sound recordings, and sound motion pictures spark growth in instructional media, transitioning to the audiovisual instruction movement. (Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2018, p. 9) -
Economic Challenges
Despite the Great Depression, the audiovisual field continues evolving; commercial investments in visual instruction suffer heavy losses. (Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2018, p. 9) -
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The Criterion-Referenced Testing Movement
The criterion-referenced testing movement, which emerged in the early 1960s, emphasized assessing learners' ability to perform specific behaviors rather than comparing them to peers -
Early Concepts of Assessment
Ralph Tyler suggests that tests can be used to measure specific behaviors, marking the initial shift from norm-referenced to criterion-referenced assessment ideas. (Dale, 1967, Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2018, p. 14) -
Consolidation of Leadership
Merger of national visual instruction organizations forms the Department of Visual Instruction (DVI), later becoming AECT, consolidating leadership in instructional media. (Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2018, p. 9) -
Ralph Tyler’s Contribution
Ralph Tyler, often regarded as the father of the behavioral objectives movement, emphasizes the need to define objectives in terms of desired learner behaviors during the Eight-Year Study (1934), demonstrating their role in evaluating instruction. -
Publication of Key Textbook
Visualizing the Curriculum is published, emphasizing realism in audiovisual materials and presenting a media hierarchy that influences instructional practices. (Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2018, p. 9) -
Radio as a Revolutionary Medium
In the early 1930's, Radio is initially hailed as a transformative educational tool, but limited impact occurs due to technical issues, scheduling conflicts, and teacher resistance. (Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2018, p. 9) -
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World War II
During World War II, the use of audiovisual instruction shifted primarily to military and industrial training, with thousands of training films and filmstrips produced to rapidly educate personnel. These tools proved effective, significantly reducing training time and boosting performance, ultimately playing a strategic role in the war effort. (Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2018, p. 10) -
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The Origins of Instructional Design
The origins of instructional design trace back to World War II, where psychologists and educators developed military training programs based on research in instruction and behavior. Post-war, these experts continued to refine instructional solutions, leading to systematic approaches like task analysis. By the 1950s, instructional design emerged as a field grounded in psychology, focusing on developing effective training systems. -
Shift to Military Use
With the onset of World War II, the growth of audiovisual instruction in schools slows, but extensive use of audiovisual devices occurs in military and industrial training. (Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2018, p. 10) -
Division of Visual Aids for War Training
he U.S. federal government establishes the Division of Visual Aids, overseeing the production of 457 training films, which help reduce training time, increase interest, and lower absenteeism in civilian industries. (Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2018, p. 10) -
Foundations in WWII Training
During World War II, psychologists and educators, including Robert Gagné, Leslie Briggs, and John Flanagan, develop training materials for the military based on research and theories of instruction, learning, and behavior. -
Use of Evaluation and Testing
Psychologists create screening tests to assess trainees' intellectual, psychomotor, and perceptual skills, improving the success rates in military training programs by directing suitable candidates to appropriate training. -
Mass Production of Training Films
The U.S. Army Air Force produces over 400 training films and 600 filmstrips, resulting in over 4 million showings to military personnel. Instructors generally find these tools effective for training. (Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2018, p. 10) -
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Post-World War II - The Dawn of Television
After World War II, audiovisual leaders shifted focus to communication theories, promoting a broader understanding of the communication process in education. The 1950s saw rapid growth in instructional television, driven by FCC support and Ford Foundation funding. However, by the mid-1960s, interest declined due to challenges like high costs, mediocre programming, and resistance from educators, limiting instructional TV's impact on formal education. -
Post-War Continuation
After the war, many psychologists continue to address instructional challenges, leading to the establishment of organizations like the American Institutes for Research to further develop instructional solutions. -
Emergence of Communication Theories
Communication models by Shannon and Weaver (1949) gain attention among audiovisual leaders, emphasizing a complete communication process, including sender, receiver, and channel, rather than focusing solely on the medium. -
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The Rise of Computers and Digital Technologies
From the 1950s to the present, computers have evolved from early CAI programs to transformative tools in education and training. The introduction of personal computers in the 1980s and subsequent digital innovations, like online learning and mobile devices, led to increased interactivity and learner-centered approaches. Recent developments emphasize the pervasive use of digital technology, enhancing instruction through multimedia capabilities, social media, and real-world learning experiences. -
Early Computer-Assisted Instruction
IBM researchers develop the first CAI authoring language and programs for public schools, while Gordon Pask pioneers adaptive teaching machines, marking the start of computer-assisted instruction (CAI). (Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2018, p. 11) -
FCC Allocates Channels for Education
BIG EVENT - The Federal Communications Commission sets aside 242 TV channels for educational use, leading to the rapid growth of public educational television stations, aiming to efficiently meet the nation’s instructional needs. -
Development of Task Analysis
Pioneers like Robert B. Miller develop detailed task analysis methodologies while working on military projects, contributing to the emergence of instructional design as a systematic approach. -
Introduction of Programmed Instruction
B.F. Skinner’s article, “The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching,” initiates a minor revolution in education, promoting programmed instruction as an effective method for increasing human learning. Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2018, p.13) -
Focus on Communication Process
Influential figures like Dale (1953) and Finn (1954) advocate for considering the broader communication process in audiovisual instruction, gradually expanding the field's focus beyond just media delivery. -
Ford Foundation Funding
The Ford Foundation invests over $170 million in educational television, supporting projects like closed-circuit systems, (WE ARE, Penn State) junior-college curricula, and airborne TV instruction, driving the development of instructional TV in schools and colleges. -
Characteristics of Programmed Instruction
Programmed materials are designed to present content in small steps, require active learner responses, provide immediate feedback, and allow for self-pacing, ensuring positive reinforcement and high accuracy. -
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The Programmed Instruction Movement
The programmed instruction movement of the 1950s-1960s, initiated by B.F. Skinner, emphasized small instructional steps, active responses, immediate feedback, and learner self-pacing. -
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
Benjamin Bloom and colleagues introduce the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, establishing a framework that classifies learning outcomes in a hierarchical structure, with a focus on measurable learner behaviors. -
Systems Approach to Education
Programmed instruction exemplifies the systems approach by breaking down content into specific behavioral objectives, creating steps to achieve objectives, and validating learning outcomes, paving the way for modern instructional design models. -
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Robert M. Gagné’s Contributions to Instructional Design
Robert Gagné's The Conditions of Learning (1965) introduced foundational concepts in instructional design, including five learning domains, nine instructional events, and hierarchical analysis. -
Psychological Principles in System Development
The work of early instructional design pioneers is consolidated in Psychological Principles in System Development, edited by Gagné, highlighting instructional design’s foundation in psychology and systems thinking. (Gagné (1962b), -
Introduction of Criterion-Referenced Measures
Robert Glaser formally introduces the term "criterion-referenced measures," proposing their use to evaluate both students' entry-level skills and their achievement of instructional objectives. (Glaser (1963) Reiser, R. A., & Dempsey, J. V. (2018, p. 14) -
Nine Events of Instruction
Gagné outlines nine instructional events necessary to promote various learning outcomes, detailing how specific events align with different domains and when certain events can be omitted. -
Publication of The Conditions of Learning
Robert Gagné introduces five domains of learning outcomes—verbal information, intellectual skills, psychomotor skills, attitudes, and cognitive strategies—each requiring unique conditions for effective learning. -
Decline of Instructional Television Projects
Interest in instructional television wanes, with projects ending due to funding cuts and shifting priorities, while the Carnegie Commission concludes that instructional TV has had minimal impact on formal education. -
Adoption Challenges
Once again, we see adoption of instructional TV faces obstacles, including teacher resistance, high costs, poor program quality, and inadequate guidance for integrating TV into teaching practices. -
Expansion of CAI Programs
CAI systems like PLATO and TICCIT are developed, incorporating computers into education at both public schools and universities. Despite these efforts, CAI has minimal impact on education by the end of the 1970s. -
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Expansion of the Systems Approach in Instructional Design
The 1970s marked a period of significant growth for the systems approach in instructional design, with the development of widely accepted models like Dick & Carey, Gagné & Briggs, and others. -
Adoption by the U.S. Military
The U.S. military adopts a standardized instructional design model to enhance training development, signifying the approach’s growing credibility and applicability in defense sectors. -
Introduction of PC's
Personal computers become popular in schools due to their affordability, compact size, and versatility, with over 40% of elementary and 75% of secondary schools using computers by 1983. -
Continued Influence in Instructional Design
Gagné’s work on learning outcomes, instructional events, and hierarchical analysis continues to be foundational in instructional design, as reflected in his later works, such as Principles of Instructional Design (1992) and The Conditions of Learning (4th ed., 1985). -
Limited Impact on Instructional Practices
Despite increased access, the use of computers in schools remains basic, primarily for drill-and-practice in elementary schools and teaching computer skills in secondary schools, with limited transformation of teaching practices. -
Growth of Online Learning
Rapid expansion of online instruction in K-12, higher education, and corporate training, with significant increases in online course enrollment and integration of digital tools like video, CD-ROMs, and mobile devices. -
Rise of Mobile Learning
Widespread use of mobile devices for learning across education and business, supported by increasing interactivity, multimedia capabilities, and social networking tools for authentic, learner-centered experiences.