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Dominique Toussaint L'Ouverture
-During the Revolution in the Colonies in 1791, he was a black general who allied with the Spanish because they agreed that if you join their army the individual slave rebels would receive freedom, but after the National Convention formally abolished slavery, Toussaint left Spain and allied with to France and because of his actions the French eventually appointed him governor of St. Dominique as a reward for his efforts.
-He became a hero to abolitionists everywhere and symbolized black struggle -
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Maximilien Robespierre
- He wanted to create a “republic of virtue” . -He wanted the government to create this “republic of virtue” by teaching or forcing citizens to become vitous republicans through a massive program of political re education.
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King Stanislaw August Poniatowski
-Led the Polish Patriots
-Nobleman who owned his crown solely because he was Catherine the Great’s ex-lover and also the favorite correspondent of the Parisian salon hostess Madame Geoffrin.
-Sought in moderate reform as only way of his country to escape from consequences of misgovernment and cultural decline. -
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Napoleon Bonaparte
-Came from Corsican noble family.
-1795 - 26-yr-old Napoleon was penniless artillery officer, recently released from prison as a presumed Robespierrist
-Had some early military successes and links to Parisian politicians, so he was named commander of the French army in Italy in 1796
-Used his power, influence, and wits, he took advantage of the situation in France to become a dangerously successful ruler. -
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Ludwig van Beethoven
-A German composer who helped set the direction of musical romanticism
-Used recurring and evolving themes to convey the impression of natural growth in his music.
-Ninth Symphony (1824) in particular employed a chorus to sing the German poet Friedrich Schiller’s verses in praise of universal human solidarity. -
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Prince Klemens von Metternich
-He was an Austrian foreign minister/prince and host for the Congress of Vienna.
-Committed to the principles of conservatism
-Viewed liberalism and nationalism as threats to European stability and the survival of the Austrian Empire -
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Louis XIV
-Louis XIV was known for showing more interest in his hobby of hunting and making locks than in the problems of government.
-The king’s ineffectiveness and the queen’s unpopularity helped undermine the monarchy as an institution. -
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Marie-Antoinette
-Marie-Antoinette (wife of Louis XIV) was criticized for her extravagant taste in clothes, hards, and indifference to popular misery.
-She was the target of an increasingly nasty pamphlet campaign in the 1780’s and by 1789 she had become an object of popular hatred. -
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Simon Bolívar
-An especially prominent leader in the bloody wars of the Latin America Independence movement across the Atlantic
-European-educated son of a slave owner, learned of the works of Voltaire and Rousseau and was inspired by them.
-Bolivia was named after him. -
Dutch Patriot Revolt
-Dutch Patriots wanted to reduce powers of Prince of Orange
-Patriots gained more popular audience through peasants and merchants by demanding more military reforms and formed militias of men called Free Corps.
-Set up reelections of councils that had been packed with Orange supporters
-Free Corps took on troops of Prince of Orange - succeeded and gained political hand
-Frederick William II intervened in 1787 with support - troops occupied and Orange regained power. -
Free Corps
-Militias of men formed through Dutch Patriot Revolt
-The Free Corps wanted a more democratic form of government and to gain this they encouraged the publications of pamphlets and cartoons attacking the price and his wife and promoting organizations among the common people. However this all ended when the Prussians invaded. -
Assembly of Notables
-It was an assembly of handpicked nobles, clergymen, and officials.
-Louis XVI had submitted a package of reforms to the Assembly of Notables, who refused. As a result of this refusal, Louis XVI presented his proposals for a more uniform land tax to his old rival the parlement of Paris, however, when they too refused he ordered the parliament judges into exile.
-These judges were seen as heroes because of resisting the king's tyranny and they wanted to ro reform only on their own terms.
-Due t -
The Belgian Independence Movement
-Main cause is when Emperor Joseph II tried to introduce Enlightenment reforms
-Led to provinces revolting. Declared their own independence
-Austrian administration collapsed
-End of 1788, secret society formed to throw him out
-However, social divisions doomed the rebels, in which the democrats began to challenge noble authority, and this led to aristocratic leaders bringing the Catholic clergy and peasants to their side. -
Emperor Joseph II
-Brought Enlightenment reforms to Belgium
-Abolished torture, instituted religious tolerance for Jews+Protestants, suppressed monasteries
-His reforms led to the Belgian Independence Movement -
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Polish Patriots
-Reform party - sought to overtake the weak commonwealth along modern western European lines and looked to King Stanislaw August Poniatowski to lead them.
-Because Russian influence was waning, in 1788 Patriots got their chance. Made constitution May 3rd, 1791 - established hereditary monarchy, ended the veto power that aristocrats had over legislation, granted townspeople limited political rights, and promised future Jewish emancipation.
-A year later, Catherine II engineered the downfall of t -
The Fall of the Bastille
The Fall of the Bastille
-Occurred on July 14, 1789.
-Deputies who supported the Assembly began to fear a plot by the king when he ordered soldiers to march to Paris. This changed the course of the French Revolution, in which the common people in Paris began to arm themselves an attack places where either grain or arms were thought to be.
-The fall of the Bastille showed that the common people were willing to intervene violently at a crucial political moment. All over France, food riots turned -
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
-It is the preamble to a new constitution.
-The declaration granted freedom of religion, freedom of the press, equality of taxation, and equality before the law.
-It established the principle of national sovereignty, in which the king derived his authority from the nation rather than from tradition of divine right.
-However, conflict arose when all men were given freedom, but not women and slaves. -
The Terror
-After Maximilien Robespierre’s want of forcing citizens to become virtuous republicans led to the Terror.
-This is when the guillotine became to most terrifying instrument of a governmnet that suppressed almost every form of dissent.
-These policies led to increases in divisions, which led to Robespierre’s fall from power dismantling the government by terror. -
The Great Fear
-Peasant attacks on aristocrats or on the records of peasant dues kept in the lord’s château.
-Peasants refused to pay dues to their lords and it raised alarms of peasant insurrection.
-The National Assembly was a was alarmed by the peasant unrest and on the night of August 4, 1789, noble deputies announced their willingness to give up their tax exemptions and seigneurial dues.
-This also led to the end of Feudalism. -
Jacobin Club
-During the time of the Second Revolution, many of the deputies in the National Convention (meeting that led to France becoming a republic) belonged to the devotedly republican Jacovin Club.
It was named after the former monastery in Paris where the club first met.
-The Jacobin Club in Paris headed a national political network of clubs that linked all the major towns and cities. -
The Estates Generals
The Estates Generals (1789)
-It was a body of deputies from the three estates/orders of France.
-1st Estate: represented some clergy from the Catholic Church.
-2nd Estate: the nobility who enjoyed tax exemptions and collected seigneurial dues and rents from their peasants tenants.
3rd Estate: represented everyone else.
-Conflict arose when many denounced the traditional privileges of the nobility and clergy and called for voting by head rather than by order. As a result, townspeople held m -
Festival of Federation
-Marked the first anniversary of the fall of Bastille.
-Well-known painter Jacques-Louis David, deputy and associate of Robespierre, took over festival planning
-Aimed to destroy mystique of monarchy and make the republic sacred.
-Similar festival, also headed by David, the Festival of Unity (August 10, 1793) celebrated overthrow of the monarchy. -
The Civil Cons of the Clergy
-After the first written constitution was created, the deputies turned to reforming the Catholic church, which caused conflicts.
-Deputies outlawed any future monastic vows and encouraged monks and nuns to return to private life by offering state pension.
-Due to the financial crisis, the National Assembly confiscated all the church’s property and promised to pay clerical salaries in return. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy set pay scales for the clergy and provided that the voters elect th -
De-Christianization
-Revolutionaries wanted to replace the Catholic church through the festival system.
-The revolutionaries closed churches (Protestant and Catholic), selling many church buildings to the highest bidder, and trying to force even those clergy who had taken the oath of loyalty to abandon their clerical vocations and marry. for ams of grain or their stones were sold off the contractors.
-Great churches became storehouses for arms or grain, or their stones were sold off the contractors.
-The medieval -
Revolution in the Colonies
-In August 1791, slaves in northern St. Domingue organized a large scale revolt.
-To restore authority over the slaves, the Legislative Assembly in Paris granted civil and political rights to the free black. However, this action angered white planters and merchants and led to them signing an agreement with Great Britain of declaring British sovereignty over St. Domingue. Spain then came into the picture, when they offered freedom to individual slave rebels who joined the Spanish armies (they als -
The Guillotine
-Before 1789, only nobles decapitated in condemned to death, commoners usually hanged.
-J. I. Guillotin proposed equalization of the death penalty, also suggested mechanical device for it to be constructed - the Guillotine.
-National Assembly decreed decapitation as death penalty June 1971 and physician A. Louis invented guillotine.
-Use of guillotine began April 1792, did not end until 1981 when the death penalty was abolished. -
The Second Revolution
-The ordinary people of Paris were frustrated with the inaction of the Legislative Assembly .
-On August 10, 1792, the ordinary people of France attacked the Tuileries Palace (the residence of the king, the royal family had to find refuge). -
National Convention meeting
-meeting led to the abolishment of the monarchy,
-establishing the first republic in French history in which the republic would answer to the people instead of the royal authority. -
Wars with Austria and Prussia
-The constitution led to an election of a new Legislative Assembly.
-By 1792, everyone wanted to go to war with Austria and on April 21, 1792, Louis declared war on Austria and Prussia joined Austria.
-This war was meant to be brief but it continued for 23 years.
-The war impacted the politics of France in which in June 1792, an angry crowd invaded the hall of the Assembly in Paris and threatened the royal family. -
National Convention
-Conflict between moderate Girondins and radical Mountain rising to a head.
-Militants in Paris agitated for the removal of the deputies who had proposed a referendum on the king - in retaliation, Girondins engineered arrest of Mountain ally Jean-Paul Marat, who had been calling for more executions
-Marat acquitted, and Parisian militants marched into National Convention on June 2, 1793. They forced deputies to decree arrest of their 29 Girondin colleagues.
-Convention consented to establishment -
General Maximum Established
-Set by Maximilien Robespierre, who personally favored a free-market economy, but was willing to sacrifice that in the time of crisis for price controls and requisitioning.
-Established in an effort to stabilize prices.
-Set limits on the prices of thirty-nine essential commodities and on wages -
Revolutionary Tribunals
-Set up to purge out political suspects.
-Convicted Marie-Antoinette of treason and sent her to the guillotine October 1793.
-Also guillotined Girondin leaders, Madame Roland, and Olympe de Gouges.
-Property of convicted traitors was confiscated -
Women's Resistance
-Many women suffered from the hard conditions of life that persisted in teh his time of war .
-This let a lof of rioting over high prices and food shortages.
-Women also organized their fellow parishioners to refuse to hear Mass offered by constitutional priests and would protect the priests that would not sign the oath of loyalty.
-Charlotte Corday went as far to assassinate Jean-Paul Marat, an outspoken deputy who supported Girondins, and she considered he patriotic duty to ill the deputy who -
The Execution of the King
-The National Convention needed to right a new constitution for the republic, However, many thought that the Revolution went too far when it confiscated the properties of the church, eliminated titles of nobility, and deposed the king.
-France really did not know much government besides a monarchy and now any sign of monarchy was at risk.
-After the fall of the monarchy in August 1792, the Jacobins of the Nation Convention divided into the Girondins who resented the growth of Parisian militant -
Intellectuals during the Revolution
-Many leading intellectuals in the German states like the philosopher Immanuel Kant, supported the revolutionary cause but after 1793, many of these intellectuals turned against the revolution because of the violence and military violence.
-Friedrich Schiller, one of the great writers of this age typified the turn in sentiment against revolutionary politics.
-The German states experienced a profound artistic and intellectual revival, which eventually connected with anti-French nationalism. -
Rebellion and Civil War
-Organized resistance broke out in many parts of France. The arrest of the Girondin deputies in June 1793 sparked insurrection in several departments.
-After the government took the city of Lyon back, the deputy on mission ordered sixteen hundred houses demolished and the name of the city hanged to Liberated City.
-In the Vendée region of France, resistance turned into a bloody war. Between March and December 1793, peasants, artisans, and weavers joined uner noble leadership to form a “Catholi -
Intellectuals During the Revolution
-Many leading intellectuals in the German states like the philosopher Immanuel Kant, supported the revolutionary cause but after 1793, many of these intellectuals turned against the revolution because of the violence and military violence.
-Friedrich Schiller, one of the great writers of this age typified the turn in sentiment against revolutionary politics.
-The German states experienced a profound artistic and intellectual revival, which eventually connected with anti-French nationalism. -
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Poland Extinguished
-The Poles and Lithuanians did not like the spirit of independence because they had already lost a lot of territory and population.
-Fearing French influence, Prussia joined Russia in dividing generous new slices of Polish territory in the second partition of 1793 and Poland’s reform movement became even more pro-French.
-In 1794, Kosciusko, an officer who had been a foreign volunteer in the War of American Independence and a leader of Poland and escaped to Paris, returned from France to lead a -
The Fall of Robespierre and the End of the Terror
-In the atmosphere of fear of conspiracy of these outbreaks, Robespierre tried to exert the National Convention’s control over political activities and opposition.
-His trying to gain more control led to group of deputies joining within the Convention to order the arrest and execution of Robespierre and his followers.
-This Convention then ordered elections and drew up a new republican constitution that gave power to 5 directors. These 5 directors were called “Directory government”and this gove -
The Thermidorian Reaction
-The men who led the attack on Robespierre in Thermidor did not intend to reverse all his policies, but it happened because of a violent backlash known as the Thermidorian Reaction.
-Newspapers would attack Robespierrists as triggers of bloodshed , which led to the new government releasing hundreds of suspects and arranging a temporary truce in the Vendée, which purjed Jacobins from local bodies and replaced them with their opponents.
-Many of the Robespierrists/terrorists in the National Conve -
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"Sister Republics"
-The Directory government launched an aggressive policy of creating semi-independent “sister republics: wherever the French armies succeeded.
-When Prussia declared neutrality in 1795, the French armies swarmed in the Dutch Republic and created the new Batavian Republic.
-The Cisalpine Republic was created after the general Napoleon Bonaparte defeated many Austrian armies in northern Italy.
-After the French attacked the Swiss cantons in 1798, they set up the helvetic Republic and this also le -
Napoleon Named First Consul
-After ejecting those who opposed him, Napoleon left those remaining in government to vote to abolish the Directory and establish a new three-man executive called the directory.
-Napoleon took the title of First Consul - the most important and powerful.
-As first consul, Napoleon held all the power and made all the decisions, quickly enacting policies designed to transform France into an efficient modern state. -
Napoleon Signs Concordat with Pope
-Napoleon needed to end the tense relationship between the French gov. and the Catholic Church.
-Concordat granted the Church special status as the religion of “the majority of Frenchmen”
-Pope regained right to confirm church dignitaries appointed by the French government, depose French bishops, and reopen religious seminaries.
-In return, pope recognized French government and accepted the loss of church properties confiscated during the Revolution. -
Civil Code
-As part of his restoration of order, Napoleon had his legal experts consolidate hundreds of local law codes into a uniform legal code
-Guaranteed many achievements of the French Revolution, including equality before the law, freedom of religion, abolition of privilege, and the protection of property rights
-Increased the authority of husbands within the family - women and children legally dependent on their husband or father. -
Napoleon Crowns Himself Emperor
-Napoleon tolerated no divergence from his plans - he censored the press and suppressed all political opposition.
-But France enjoyed security, stability, and prosperity all the same, and well-supported him.
-With the pope’s blessing, Napoleon soon crowned himself emperor. -
Battle of Austerlitz
-Napoleon was nothing short of a military genius, which he more than proved in a series of military conquests.
-Among these was his battles with Austria as they took up arms against him when he demanded their neutrality in the then-ongoing conflict with Britain.
-Napoleon promptly captured 25k soldiers at Ulm in Bavaria, and marched on to Vienna, trouncing the Austrians AND the Russians in the Battle of Austerlitz, often considered Napoleon’s greatest victory. -
Continental System
-Napoleon wished to disrupt the British’s economy and send it bankrupt by choking their trade.
-He inaugurated this system in 1806, which prohibited all commerce between Great Britain and France or France’s dependent states and allies.
-At first, it worked - British exports dropped by 20%, manufacturing declined 10%, and unemployment and a strike of 60k workers ensued.
-The British retaliated by confiscating merchandise on ships even those of neutral powers in the war, that sailed into or out of -
Napoleon Invades Russia
-The Continental System prevented Russia from exporting grain to Great Britain, but Tsar Alexander I refused to stop it.
-Napoleon’s Grand Army invaded, reaching Moscow, but Alexander refused to surrender, forcing Napoleon to retreat.
-Bitterly cold weather, disease, and merciless Russian attacks decimated Napoleon’s army. -
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Napoleon's Defeat
-Napoleon was severely weakened after his failed invasion of Russia. His enemies - Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria, took advantage of this and formed a Grand Alliance.
-The Grand Alliance defeated Napoleon at the Battle of the Nations October 1813. From there, everything fell apart as Napoleon’s allies deserted him.
-The Grand Alliance entered Paris in March 1814, and Napoleon abdicated his throne and was exiled to the island of Elba. -
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Congress of Vienna
-After Napoleon was taken care of, there was a LOT of territory to be settled. The Congress of Vienna was a series of face-to-face negotiations between the great powers to settle the boundaries of European states and determine who would rule each nation.
-In the end, Russia acquired more Polish territory, Sweden retained Norway, Prussia acquired two-fifths of Saxony and territory in the Rhineland along France’s border, Austria acquired the northern Italian provinces of Lombardy and Venetia as co -
Hundred Days
-March 1815, Napoleon escaped from Elba and formed a new army, bent on revenge.
-Though he had left in ignominy, now crowds cheered him and former soldiers volunteered to serve him.
-This wasn’t enough, however - led by Great Britain and Prussia, the Grand Alliance defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815. -
Spanish Revolt
-When Ferdinand VII regained the Spanish crown in 1814, he worked quickly to restore the prerevolutionary nobility, church, and monarchy. He had foreign books and newspapers confiscated at the frontier and only allowed the publication of two newspapers
-Such repressive policies disturbed the middle class, especially the army officers who had encountered French ideas.
-In 1820, disgruntled soldiers demanded that Ferdinand proclaim his adherence to the constitution of 1812, which he had abolished -
Law of Indemnity + Law of Sacrilege
-Charles X brought his own downfall by steering the monarchy in an increasingly repressive direction.
-Law of Indemnity compensated nobles who had emigrate during the French Revolution for the loss of their estates
-Law of Sacrilege imposed death penalty for such offenses as stealing religious objects from churches. -
Decembrist Revolt in Russia
-WhenTsar Alexander I died in December 1825, a group of army officers rebelled, calling for constitutional reform
-Alexander’s successor, Nicholas I ruthlessly suppressed these Decembrists
-Under Nicholas I’s oppressive regime, Russia became Europe’s most powerful reactionary stronghold -
French Revolution of 1830
-Charles X’s reactionary policies infuriated both his liberal and working-class opponents
-Thus, three days of rioting in July 1830.
-The bourgeoisie prevailed - with their support, Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, became “king of the French” - he prided himself on being a “citizen king” who supported France’s business interests. -
Belgian Independence
-The French Revolution happened to get Belgium all riled up too.
-The Congress of Vienna united Belgium with Holland to form a single kingdom of the Netherlands. Unfortunately, Belgium was Catholic and Holland was Protestant, so they had very little in common.
-Riots in Belgium quickly turned into a widespread demand for independence.
-Both Great Britain and France opposed intervention. In 1830, the great powers recognized Belgium as a neutral state. -
Reform Bill of 1832
-House of Commons severely imbalanced
-Parliament passed this bill that created a number of new districts representing heavily urban areas.
-Also doubled the number of voters to include most middle-class men.
-Under this bill, however, only one in five adult males could vote. Workers, women, and the poor were all disenfranchised.