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Excessive spending and poor harvests lead to a financial crisis in France
France had long been struggling with the national debt due to foreign wars and the luxurious lifestyles of the nobility. King Louis XVI attempted to solve this problem by reforming the tax system to include land owned by the nobility. The Parlement of Paris, made mostly of nobles, blocked his decree and demanded the king call the Estates-General. The Parlement believed that the king’s reforms were too radical and thought the Estates-General could stop and alter his plans. -
King Louis XVI calls the Estates-General
King Louis XVI gave in to pressure from both the Parlement of Paris and popular revolts to call the Estates-General. Each of the three Estates elected delegates and were represented in deliberations, which at first were separated into the First and Second Estates in one area and the Third Estate in another. The Third Estate compiled lists of grievances to be presented and were determined to create lasting social change in France. -
The Tennis Court Oath
The initial separation between the Third Estate and the First and Second Estates angered the Third Estate delegates and created tension. This culminated in the Third Estate being locked out of their usual meeting place and signing the Tennis Court Oath. They swore they would not disband until France had a Constitution and their solidarity led Louis XVI to force all three Estates to meet together, creating a united National Assembly with equal representation for the Third Estate. -
The National Assembly adopts the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen
The newly formed National Assembly had to face the problem of widespread countryside revolt known as the Great Fear. Peasants burned feudal documents and attacked manor houses in fear of German mercenaries. To quiet the chaos, the National Assembly passed the Declaration of the Rights of Man guaranteeing equality before the law, representative government, and individual freedom but knew greater legal action was necessary to cement these changes. -
The Constitution of 1791 sets up a constitutional monarchy in France
The Constitution of 1791 reduced Louis XVI to a mere figurehead while the Legislative Assembly became the legislative body and abolished the nobility. The Assembly also prohibited monopolies, created a national currency, and allowed peasants to buy property which increased their loyalty to the Assembly. The increased rights for peasants led to less love for the monarchy and when the King attempted to flee France, most of the public saw him as a traitor. -
Louis XVI is executed at the guillotine
As public opinion of the monarchy decreased and turned to resentment, the Legislative Assembly imprisoned the royal family and the Revolution radicalized quickly. A National Convention was elected, they proclaimed France a republic, convicted Louis of treason, and executed him at the guillotine. Robespierre led one half of the Convention and seized power as the head of the Committee of Public Safety. -
Robespierre's Reign of Terror Begins
As the leader of the Committee of Public Safety, Robespierre dealt with threats inside and outside of France. He executed thousands and imprisoned countless more peasants suspected of treason and brought the Revolution to all aspects of daily life. Robespierre’s enemies executed him during the Thermidorian Reaction when they feared they would be next on the chopping block. -
The Directory is installed
The middle class once again gained control of France and established the Directory, a weak dictatorship based on war and expansion, in place of the Committee of Public Safety. The Directory restricted political organizations and the sans-culottes lost their fervor. The Directory could not cope with growing economic problems and French citizens began to reminisce about the days of a powerful monarchy. -
Napoleon's coup d'etat, overthrowing the Directory
Legislators also began to desire a strong dictatorship rather than a weak one and plotted against the Directory. The general attitude in France was defined by Sieyes’ statement, “confidence from below, authority from above”. The representative government had failed in France and the only thing the plotting legislators needed was a charismatic and likable person to be the face of change. -
Napoleon is declared First Consul
The overthrowal of the Directory by the legislative body in France was replaced by the popular and successful commander Napoleon. Napoleon was named First Consul and the French people were delighted with a strong government represented by a powerful leader. A new constitution made Napoleon the real ruler of France and he used his charm to end civil strife by negotiating the Napoleonic Code. Napoleon made amends with all social classes and provided stability to France. -
Napoleon is declared Emperor
Napoleon’s popularity and success in expanding France’s borders led to him declaring himself Emperor of France. He aggressively conquered Austria, Prussia, and the German states and forced Russia to negotiate for peace. Seeing himself as the ruler of all of Europe, he also attempted to restrict British trade with the rest of Europe to weaken England to his attacks -
Napoleon is defeated by Horatio Nelson
While disrupting British trade with continental Europe, Napoleon also plotted an invasion of England. His fleet was met by the British at the Battle of Trafalgar and Napoleon’s fleet was utterly destroyed under the command of Lord Nelson. The destruction of Napoleon’s fleet ended all of his hopes of invading England and he then had to resort to economic warfare with the British. -
The Continental System is implemented
Since the French fleet had been destroyed at the Battle of Trafalgar, an invasion of England was impossible. To weaken England, Napoleon forced countries either allied with France or under French control to cease trade with the British. Ironically, the Continental System ended up hurting French industry as they could no longer export goods to England. Economic problems combined with increased opposition to French domination led to decreasing support for Napoleon, especially in conquered areas. -
Napoleon is defeated at Leipzig (Battle of the Nations)
The final straw for Napoleon’s Empire was his defeat by the combined forces of Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Sweden. Napoleon was forced to return to France and the coalition armies kept up their momentum and dissolved the Confederation of the Rhine. Napoleon’s military failures and the loss of French control over the German states led to Napoleon being forced to abdicate. -
Napoleon is exiled to Elba
After Napoleon was forced to abdicate, he was exiled to the Isle of Elba but was still given a generous yearly stipend from the French government. He escaped the island and returned to France as Emperor for a hectic period known as the Hundred Days but his exile marked the true end of his hopes of a Grand Empire encompassing all of Europe. -
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