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An intellectual movement emphasizing reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional doctrines, laying the groundwork for modern science and political thought.
Smith, J. (2020). The Enlightenment: An intellectual revolution. Academic Press. -
This landmark work formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation, reinforcing the role of rationality in understanding the natural world.
Newton, I. (1999). The Principia: Mathematical principles of natural philosophy (I. B. Cohen A. Whitman, Trans.). University of California Press. (Original work published 1687) -
Locke's work advocated for the idea of a social contract and natural rights, influencing future democratic governance and revolutionary thought.
Locke, J. (1960). Two treatises of government (P. Laslett, Ed.). Cambridge University Press. (Original work published 1689) -
Advocated for the separation of powers within government, an idea that would heavily influence the formation of modern democratic institutions.
Montesquieu, C. de S. (1989). The spirit of the laws (A. M. Cohler, B. C. Miller, H. S. Stone, Trans.). Cambridge University Press. (Original work published 1748) -
A satirical novella criticizing optimism and established religion, embodying Enlightenment ideals of reason and criticism of power structures.
Voltaire. (2005). Candide, or optimism (T. Cuffe, Trans.). Penguin Classics. (Original work published 1759) -
Proposed that legitimate political authority comes from a social contract agreed upon by all citizens, which would later influence the French Revolution.
Rousseau, J.-J. (1968). The social contract (M. Cranston, Trans.). Penguin Books. (Original work published 1762) -
Drafted by Thomas Jefferson, this document asserted the colonies' right to self-governance and reflected Enlightenment principles of individual liberty.
Jefferson, T. (1776). The declaration of independence. U.S. Government Printing Office. -
Ended the American Revolutionary War and marked the first significant success of Enlightenment-inspired political change.
Morris, R. B. (1970). The peace negotiations of 1783: An examination of the Treaty of Paris. Yale University Press. -
Convened by King Louis XVI to address France’s financial crisis, this event triggered the beginning of revolutionary action as the Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly.
Doyle, W. (2001). The Oxford history of the French Revolution (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. -
A pivotal event in the French Revolution symbolizing the fall of the monarchy's absolute power and the rise of the people's voice.
Schama, S. (1989). Citizens: A chronicle of the French Revolution. Random House. -
Adopted by the National Assembly, this document outlined the fundamental rights of citizens and emphasized liberty, equality, and fraternity.
National Assembly of France. (1789). Declaration of the rights of man and of the citizen. In J. Stewart (Ed.), Documents of the French Revolution (pp. 45–48). Academic Publications. -
Thousands of Parisian women marched to Versailles demanding bread and forcing King Louis XVI to move to Paris, signifying popular pressure on the monarchy.
Hunt, L. (2004). Politics, culture, and class in the French Revolution (20th anniversary ed.). University of California Press. -
The king was tried for treason and executed by guillotine, which marked the radical phase of the French Revolution.
Doyle, W. (2018). The French Revolution: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press. -
Led by Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety, this period was characterized by intense political purges and executions to defend the Revolution.
Hampson, N. (1974). The terror in the French Revolution. Arnold. -
Robespierre’s arrest and execution ended the Reign of Terror and led to a more moderate phase of the Revolution known as the Thermidorian Reaction.
McPhee, P. (2012). Robespierre: A revolutionary life. Yale University Press. -
Napoleon's coup d'état of the 18th Brumaire led to the establishment of the Consulate, marking the end of the revolutionary government and the start of his rise to power.
Roberts, A. (2014). Napoleon: A life. Viking Press. -
Napoleon's comprehensive set of laws unified French legal principles, emphasizing meritocracy and the protection of property rights, and spread Enlightenment ideals across Europe.
Bertaud, J. P. (1986). The Napoleonic Code and its legacy. Harvard University Press. -
Napoleon proclaimed himself Emperor of the French, consolidating his power and signaling a shift from revolutionary ideals to imperial rule.
Jones, C. (2002). Napoleon: Emperor of the French. Basic Books. -
Known as Napoleon’s greatest victory, this battle demonstrated his military prowess and secured French dominance over Europe.
Chandler, D. G. (1966). The campaigns of Napoleon. Macmillan. -
A disastrous military campaign in which Napoleon’s Grand Army suffered severe losses due to harsh winter conditions and Russian tactics, leading to his downfall.
Zamoyski, A. (2004). 1812: Napoleon’s fatal march on Moscow. Harper Perennial. -
Following defeat by the Sixth Coalition, Napoleon was exiled to Elba, signaling the temporary restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in France.
Dwyer, P. (2013). Napoleon: The path to power 1769–1814. Yale University Press. -
Napoleon returned to power for a brief period known as the Hundred Days but was ultimately defeated at the Battle of Waterloo, ending his rule.
Horne, A. (2006). The age of Napoleon. Modern Library. -
A conference held to reorganize Europe after the Napoleonic Wars, aiming to restore stability and balance of power across the continent.
Kissinger, H. A. (1957). A world restored: Metternich, Castlereagh, and the problems of peace 1812–22. Weidenfeld Nicolson.