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The French Wars at sea
During the French Revolution, France declared war on many European monarchies, including Britain. Previous naval reforms and British naval culture, combined with the inexperience of many French officers (all theirs had been killed in the Revolution), made the task appear simple. However, naval dominance was a struggle. Nelson's role is much debated, however his influence and victories did lead to the cementing of the Royal Navy as the major naval power afterthe Battle of Trafalgar (1805). -
Glorious First of June
Lord Howe attacked a French fleet escorting grain shipments from the USA to France. Howe sank 7/26 enemy ships, causing 7000 French casualties, but failed to stop the grain shipments from making it to France. -
French failure to land in Ireland
A French invasion fleet of 44 ships aimed to land in Ireland, however, violent storms led to the loss of 12 French ships and thousands of men. -
Cape St Vincent
John Jervis, made commander of the Mediterranean fleet in 1795, faced the main Spanish fleet (Spain joined the war against Britain in 1796), which was twice the size of his own, at Cape St Vincent. However, Jervis' ships cut through the enemy line, defeating the disorganised and inexperienced Spanish fleet. Nelson also played a key role, capturing two ships, and going against his orders to deliver victory, becoming the darling of the Royal Navy. -
Spithead Mutiny
The home fleet at Spithead, near Portsmouth, refused orders to go to sea; they opposed conditions such as pay and food quality. The strike was civilised and the government agreed to improve conditions. Another mutiny on the 7th May broke out as the bill took too long to go through parliament. Lord Howe personally dealt with the 'petty officers', and reestablished trust through guarantees and visits to each ship. -
Nore Mutiny
A more severe mutiny, demanding veto power over officers and pardons for deserters. The Nore ships tried to blockade the Thames, along with the North Sea Fleet. Pitt didn't want to make more concessions, and he tried to starve them. Eventually, the moderate sailors took control of ships, and mutineers were hanged. Discipline was breaking down. -
Camperdown
The North Sea Fleet engaged a Dutch fleet off the Dutch coast. Both fleets were similar sized, but Duncan smashed the Dutch, capturing fourteen ships. This restored the Royal Navy's confidence, despite the prospects of a French invasion, and a French army setting sail from Toulon, going who knows where. Nelson was sent to investigate, which stretched the navy thin. -
The Nile
After his correct guess of Napoleon's fleet's destination and a month of searching, Nelson found the French fleet at the mouth of the Nile. He went against conventional rules of battle, attacking in the evening and sailing dangerously close to the shores in order to take advantage and surprise the French. He ordered his 'band of brothers' to engage closely, capturing or destroying 11/13 French ships. Nelson's camaraderie and novel tactics led to strong British hold on the Mediterranean. -
Capture of Malta
Despite Nelson's sulking at not getting the Mediterranean job and his reputation being a bit sullied by an affair, the Royal Navy continued success; Keith's methodical strategies resulted in the end of the siege of Malta, and its capture. -
Copenhagen
The League of Armed Neutrality threatened British dominance at sea, and blocked access to Scandinavian stores of important materials, such as hemp, tar, pitch and timber. Nelson was in charge of the attack on Copenhagen. He was ordered to retreat after heavy resistance, but he ignored this order, and many Danish ships surrendered. After threatening to set fire to floating batteries and abandon Danish prisoners, there was a truce. Nelson now led the Baltic Fleet, and the LAN were scared off. -
Treaty of Amiens
The Peace of Amiens ended hostilities. Jervis, now the Earl of St Vincent, set about cancelling contracts and dismissing workers, to save money. This reduced ship production, and made the navy unready and stretched thin when conflict resumed in 1803. Nelson took command of the Mediterranean Fleet, and tried an open blockade on Toulon. -
Chase of Villeneuve
After Villeneuve broke out from Toulon, he led Nelson to the Caribbean. The plan had been to lose the Royal Navy, and sail back to join up with Napoleon's fleets and invade Britain. Nelson did not catch Villeneuve, but sent a fast frigate back to Europe, guessing the French plan. Villeneuve was intercepted by Calder, and escaped with losses. He did not make the rendezvous with the rest of the fleet, and Nelson returned to reinforce the Channel Fleet. The threat of invasion was gone. -
Trafalgar
Nelson employed an open blockade of Cadiz, hoping to lure Villeneuve out. V left for Italy, chased by Nelson. Nelson had a smaller fleet, but had given his officers commands the night before. Using simple orders, Nelson led two columns to bisect the French and Spanish lines. The enemy aim was poor, and there was fog. Close-quarters fighting and broadsides destroyed many ships. Nelson was killed, but it was a decisive victory; the Royal Navy was not seriously challenged again. Numbers needed. -
Continental System
The Berlin Decree established the Continental System, under which British trade with French-controlled Europe was banned. Whilst this did decrease British exports to Europe by 30%, they simply traded elsewhere, assisted by the dominance of the Royal Navy. -
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The French Wars on land
Napoleon's desire to enforce the Continental System led to his invasion of Spain and Portugal. He had placed his brother, Joseph, on the Spanish throne, causing uprisings across the country. Portugal rebelled too, and Junot was cut off, trapped in Lisbon. Wellington's advance and gradual pushback of the French contains many examples of his quality and skill, rarely losing a battle. His defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo marked the end of over twenty years of conflict. -
Vimeiro
Wellesley had landed before his senior commanders, Moore, Dalrymple and Burrard, arrived. He took advantage of this relative freedom, and pushed 5000 troops from Rolica. Wellington was reinforced, and Junot pushed his position. Using reverse slope tactics and holding the high ground, the French fled. Wellington begged Burrard, who had just arrived, to pursue, but he refused. Vimeiro was still a significant victory. -
Convention of Cintra
Dalrymple signed an agreement allowing Junot's forces to be transported to France on British ships. The public and high command were outraged, the commanders had snatched defeat from the jaws of victory. This was a political disaster, and Wellesley stayed away from pushing this plan, being singled out for his good conduct. Darymple, Burrard and Wellesley were sent home, and John Moore took over. -
Corunna
John Moore had led troops north, away from the main Spanish force, but retreated towards Corunna after word of Napoleon's advance reached him. A brutal retreat in which 7000 men were lost culminated in the Battle of Corunna, which allowed time for 26,000 men to escape on transports. Moore himself was killed, showing how other commanders did not have as great success compared to Wellesley. -
Wellesley takes command
Wellesley was put in command of 20,000 soldiers, and his colleague set about reorganising the Portuguese army along British lines. He then ferried troops across the River Douro using wine barges, and pushed back the French, who had assumed they wouldn't be able to cross the river. Soult retreated from Oporto, leaving much equipment and guns. Wellesley could now attack Victor in the east. -
Talavera
After travelling east into Spain with a mix of Spanish and English troops, Wellesley resolved to attack Marshall Victor before he could be reinforced. Cuesta refused, and Victor marched on the force. The battle occurred at Talavera, with some Spanish troops fleeing at the noise of their own guns, and the rest fortifying the town. Wellington's lines held, with Rowland Hill driving back Victor's night assault. Wellington lost 1/4 of his men, beating a numerically bigger force. -
Wellesley's retreat to Portugal
After defeating the French at Talavera, Wellesley knew there was danger of being cut off, so began the retreat towards Portugal. He was made Viscount Wellington. Spanish armies were defeated by the French in November, and the retreat into Portugal allowed Beresford time to train the Portuguese army to British standard. -
Cuidad Rodrigo
Napoleon sent Marshall Massena to invade Portugal, and began to besiege Cuidad Rodrigo. Wellington didn't want to take the risk to save the town, and it fell in July. -
Almeida
Almeida held against the French assault, but a lucky shot blew up the gunpower magazine. This led to the town's surrender, and the further advance of Massena. Wellington defended Portugal with scorched-earth tactics, making use of the Portuguese ordenanza, and evacuating civilians in the French path. -
Bussaco
Wellington occupied a strong position, and the French were pushed back in the Battle of Bussaco. However, this simply caused Massena to march around Wellington, and he was forced to retreat so as not to become encircled. Massena pressed forward, running into the Torres Vedras. These were three heavily defended lines of fortification that had been under construction for a year. It was protected by the Royal Navy and Portuguese militia. 200,000 refugees were kept behind, scorched earth in front. -
Massena's retreat
The French strategy of living off the land backfired here, as scorched-earth tactics rendered the land outside the Torres Vedras barren. A withdrawal to earthworks, and Portuguese militia blocking communications, left Massena isolated. Eventually he ordered a retreat, as over 500 soldiers were dying of starvation per week. His retreat lost up to 30k men and lots of guns and equipment. -
Albuera
After taking Almeida, Wellington's colleague Beresford beseiged Badajoz in the south. He engaged in some of the most ferocious fighting of the war, and stubbornly held on, despite taking many casualties. Soult said 'There is no beating these British soldiers'. The French were pushed back, but Beresford abandoned Bajadoz due to French reinforcements. -
Cuidad Rodrigo again
Wellington besieged the fortress, breaching the walls, and his soldiers moved into the town. His soldiers went about the town raping, pillaging and drinking. The French were pushed back. -
Badajoz
The town needed to be taken quickly due to Marmont threatening Cuidad Rodrigo. The walls were breached in three places, and the town was seized with heavy casualties. The men went crazy again, but Wellington finally got them under control. -
Salamanca
Wellington marched towards Salamanca with around 50k men. Marmont fell back, and they both kept trying to outflank eachother. Marmont became overstretched, and the British cavalry spearheaded an attack, which succeeded and caused over 14,000 French losses. Wellington's advance continued. -
Wellington's retreat from Burgos
After capturing Madrid in August, Wellington had advanced further north. However, the tough defenses at Burgos and the threats of encirclement by Soult, Joseph and Suchet caused him to retreat. He joined with Hill at Salamanca in November, and continued a difficult retreat to Portugal. He was quickly reinforced with supplies, and the army's morale improved. This retreat was beneficial for the army; Wellington had achieved a great deal. -
Vitoria
Wellington was now in command of the Spanish armies too. He advanced through large parts of Spain in thirty days, and was kept informed by Spanish guerillas. He attacked Joseph Bonaparte's army at Vitoria, which was a victory, and one of the final and most significant battles of the peninsula. Joseph Bonaparte abandoned most of his wagons and equipment. -
San Sebastian and the end of the Peninsular War
After taking Vera in mid-July, San Sebastian and Pamplona were the only remaining towns in French hands. Overstretched Allied armies managed to block Soult's relief efforts to Pamplona, in several outnumbered battles. San Sebastian fell, and Soult's offensive had cost him nearly double Wellington's casualties. Advances into France began in October, and Wellington continued to push further, sending the Spanish army home. Napoleon abdicated due to Coalition forces in Europe in April 1814. -
Waterloo
Napoleon had escaped from Elba, and massed a force hoping to deal a morale-damaging blow to the Allies. He aimed to take on the British and Prussians separately, and pursued Wellington where the British had retreated towards Brussels and positioned on a ridge by Waterloo. Napoleon waited for the rain to stop, however this gave the Prussians time to arrive. Ney was repelled several times; when the Prussians arrived, they advanced. It was close, but the French lost. The Napoleonic Wars were over. -
Crimean War begins
The British Army was touted as 'the finest army that ever left these shores', but there had been little reform for 40 years, along with spending cuts. The commanders were inexperienced, old, and prone to infighting, and the officers were often chosen by commission, rather than merit. The administration was in shambles, with a bloated and complicated structure that led to few decisions. There was low manpower due to terrible conditions, but the Royal Navy was still incredibly dominant. -
Landing at Kalamita Bay
When allied troops landed, the French commander Arnaud wanted to march immediately on Sebastopol. Raglan decided instead to consolidate supply from the surrounding countryside, not wanting to run out. This allowed the Russian commander to withdraw to a strong position with half the men. -
Battle of the Alma
Arnaud had a plan of attack which underestimated the French position, but Raglan deferred to him, not wanting to cause infighting. The French assault faltered, so Raglan ordered his men to support, capturing the strong Russian position and, after being pushed back, recapturing it, forcing the Russians to withdraw. Raglan denied Lucan's wish to chase down the Russians with cavalry, and troops camped for the night on the banks of the Alma. Allied victory at some cost. -
Entering Balaclava
Raglan had then wanted to push to Sebastopol, which would have been easy, but he again deferred to his counterpart, setting up a supply base in the small fishing port of Balaclava. The port was too small to hold the armies, so the French had to go elsewhere, spreading the frontlines and putting enormous strain on the army. Raglan now had to hold the port whilst laying siege to Sebastopol -
Siege of Sebastopol
After waiting for the preparation of all allied guns, the bombardment of Sebastopol from the land and sea began. It was successful, but the French again refused to advance, leaving the Russians time to repair the damage caused. This happened repeatedly, allowing the Russians more time to prepare an advance on the allied position. -
Battle of Balaclava
The Russian assault on Balaclava saw the Russian cavalry turned away by British infantry's 'Thin Red Line', and the charge of the Heavy Brigade. However, Cardigan, the Light Brigade commander, was jealous of this, itching to join the fight. Due to vague orders and a difference in perspective, this resulted in the charge of the Light Brigade. Despite this, the battle was won, leaving the allies in a precarious and outnumbered position. -
Battle of Inkerman
The Russians attacked Inkerman Ridge, hiding their manoeuvers in rain and fog. This broke up into many smaller skirmishes, with the Russians eventually being driven back after suffering disastrous casualties. Raglan was frustrated at the lack of action, warning the Duke of Newcastle of the winter's dangers. Newcastle responded that the Crimean winters were among the mildest in the world. Nothing to worry about. Phew. -
Winter storm
The winter of 1854-55 was terrible. Icicles formed on mustaches, a storm wrecked much of the incoming supplies, and the Commissariat was incompetent with supply organisation and distribution. The only proper road was initially held by the Russians, and there was no feed for the pack animals to transport supplies from the port to the front. The medical situation was in shambles too, Florence Nightingale battled this. 564/3025 cases for one doctor was from battle. Winter was very very very bad. -
Fall of Aberdeen
The disastrous winter, which left only 11,000 fighting men (23,000 were ill or wounded by the end of winter), was reported back to Britain by Russell and other journalists, which made the British public angry. Aberdeen was thrown from power and replaced by Palmerston. A railway contractor was also brought in to ease the supply woes, and the hospital deaths declined rapidly in February. -
Second bombardment of Sebastopol
After several months of inaction, a bombardment caused heavy casualties within the city, but the defences stayed strong. The Russians were suffering many problems themselves, such as poor supply, widely spread troops, and weak transport systems. Raglan was, again, keen to attack, but the new French commander refused. -
Death of Raglan
After several assaults on positions around Sebastopol, with some success and some failure, there were increasing divides between the two sides. Raglan had dysentery and was pretty depressed. He died, being replaced by John Simpson who had no interest in leading. -
Fall of Sebastopol
After a failed Russian assault in August, French forces captured more land on the outskirts of the city. A British assault failed, but the Russians finally abandoned Sebastopol, allowing the allies to occupy it. Russian guns to the north still made secure occupation impossible. -
Treaty of Paris
The campaign had petered out, with a lot of action occurring in the Baltic, with the Royal Navy successfully threatening St Petersburg throughout the war under Napier and then Dundas. The main goals of the war had been achieved, with heavy cost and calls for significant reforms. There were around 800,000 total casualties, a very high toll, and the highest between 1815 and 1914. -
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The Boer War
The Second Boer war began with disaster. Poor forward-planning and a severe underestimation of the enemy led to catastrophic sieges and failures in battle, both of which caused public outrage. After an experienced commander took charge, the war became an easier affair, and the Boers were quickly defeated. The end of the war became a guerilla-style conflict, with pockets of resistance remaining until 1902. Concentration camps were a blight on the public conscience towards the end of the war. -
Siege of Ladysmith
White, after winning the costly Battle of Talana Hill retreated into Ladysmith for fear of a Boer counteroffensive. Boers surrounded the town with siege guns. White tried to break out with the Battle of Modderspruit, but this failed. White became trapped. The Boers also besieged Mafeking and Kimberly, but didn't attempt to take the towns. This was a disaster for the British. -
Buller arrives and splits the army
Redvers Buller had been sent to support White, but now found himself in command of the main British forces. He split the army into three, with Methuen setting out to relieve Kimberly and Mafeking, Gatacre to secure the north and Stormberg, and himself to relieve Ladysmith. -
Stormberg
A disastrous defeat, Stormberg was the first battle in Black Week. Gatacre got lost, his men were tired, and the Boers ambushed them by a hill. Many of the infantrymen rushed forward without orders, and there were significant casualties. Gatacre retreated. -
Magersfontein
Methuen attacked the Boers' fortified position at Magersfontein heights. The Boer trenches and artillery fire held firm, and there were over 900 casualties on the British side. Kimberly was not relieved. -
Colenso
Buller attempted to cross the Teluga River, but had poor information and little effective strategy. Some drowned, and the Boers had a three-side advantage to advancing troops. Whilst Colenso was occupied, Buller ordered a retreat. Confusing orders mixed as some guns were saved, but others abandoned. The battle resulted in 8 Boer casualties, and 150 British. Buller advised White to surrender, and this seemingly cowardly action caused him to be replaced by the incoming Roberts. -
Roberts arrives in South Africa
Lord Roberts, one of the most experienced and successful soldiers in the British Army, arrived to supersede Buller. He issued new tactics, insisting on reconnaissance and the avoidance of battle tradition (mass formations). He planned to relieve Kimberly and take Bloemfontein. He brought Kitchener with him, who improvised some transport wagons for supply. -
Spion Kop
Buller tried again to relieve Ladysmith, attempting (with his subordinate Warren) to take the Boer defensive hill Spion Kop. His men reached the top, only for clearing fog to reveal surrounding hills containing Boer gun emplacements. Poor communication and contradictory orders led to some men retreating, and some attempting to defend. Over 1000 casualties, and the retreat from the position were the results. The public was exposed to photos of the horrors, taken by Churchill. -
Relief of Kimberly
Roberts and Kitchener had doubled the number of mounted infantry, but undercompensated with supply. Medical supplies were lost, and morale was dropping. However, John French made a cavalry advancement and freed Kimberly. Roberts captured Cronje, one of the main Boer commanders, two weeks later. -
Relief of Ladysmith
Buller tried, for the fourth time, to relieve Ladysmith, finally achieving this goal with a slow advance. He defeated Botha north of the Colenso, having successfully crossed the Teluga river. -
Relief of Mafeking
After capturing Bloemfontein on the 13th March, Roberts' army had difficulty, through lack of supplies and an outbreak of typhoid. However, he managed to send a small force to relieve Mafeking. Its defender, Robert Baden-Powell, had kept a fifth of the Boers busy in his efforts at Mafeking. This relief brought huge celebrations in the UK. -
Annexation of Transvaal
After capturing Johannesburg, Pretoria and many more of the Boers, and driving Kruger out of the country, Transvaal was annexed, as the Orange Free State had been. Roberts returned home, leaving Kitchener to mop up remaining resistance. -
Fawcett Commission established
Emily Hobhouse was an activist and author, visiting the concentration camps in South Africa in early 1901, and writing back to the UK describing her horrific findings. Over 30,000 people died in these camps. The Fawcett Commission was set up to investigate her findings, and their recommendations led to the mortality rate dropping significantly. -
Treaty of Vereeniging
This Treaty saw most of the Boer commandos pledge allegiance to Britain, and recognised British annexation of the two republics. Britain provided £3 million for reconstruction. This saw the effective end to the war. -
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The First World War
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Britain declares war
This action was not planned to a full extent, and there had been no preparations in expanding or mobilising the armed forces. Kitchener was made secretary of state for war, becoming one of the only major figures thinking the war would last four years. He began to plan the British army's recruitment system. -
First flight reconnaissance mission
Planes were a relatively new invention, and had many weaknesses, but as technology developed they improved in usefulness; their original purpose as reconnaissance vehicles grew in effectiveness throughout the war after this first mission. -
The Marne
After a German advance at Mons and Le Cateau, the German right flank was attacked by the French, and BEF entered the gap between divisions. The Germans fell back to the River Aisne, where they dug in, and found that barbed wire, machine guns and trenches were very effective at stopping attackers. -
Ypres 1
The race to the sea had begun in earnest, as both sides dug in up to the English Channel and south to the Swiss border. The BEF encountered the Germans at Ypres, where they resisted the enemy, maintaining Allied control of the ports. These battles brought heavy casualties. -
First Zeppelin raids on London
These massive airships heavily affected morale among the general populace, and started a series of raids that continued throughout the war, killing nearly 1,500 civilians. Defences were raised, including propaganda efforts and a somewhat successful AA system. -
Loos
Despite the majority of men in Europe being inexperienced, the government would have preferred to remain on the defensive until there were full armies. Kitchener and French wanted to launch an offensive to help Russia, so they attacked at Loos. Advances failed, and French made mistakes in the deploy of his reserve troops. It lasted several weeks, and brought heavy casualties for little gain. -
Haig replaces French
Haig and French were divided on why Loos happened. Haig was close to the royals, and French was encouraged to resign. Haig took his place as Field Marshal, with William Robertson taking control of the IGS. Haig was controversial, he did not have much imagination, relying on tradition, but did work hard and was more stable than his predecessor. -
Military Service Act
This law served to conscript unmarried men between the ages of 18 and 41, with exemptions for the unfit, sole supporters, in essential jobs or consciencious objectors. Many exemptions were removed later in the year. There were over two million claims for exemption -
The Somme
Wanting to take pressure off the French at Verdun, Haig decided to attack the Somme. The initial artillery barrage was not effective, due to the lack of heavy guns, expertise, and quality shells (1/3 didn't detonate). The Germans reached the machine guns first, and fired on the incoming Allies. Massive casualties, and fighting continued for several months. Tanks were first used here, they almost all broke down. Overall, it caused the British 420k casualties, and even more for the Germans. -
Passchendaele
Haig had wanted a great offensive in Flanders. His project was supported universally, despite not everyone agreeing that this would result in a major breakthrough. The War Policy Committee agreed that the aim should be to wear down the Germans. Massive artillery barrages were followed by an advancement, and creeping barrage. The Germans were prepared for the assault, and the Allies only gained 9 km. There were some costly pushes. Strategic incoherence and poor choice of battlefield. -
Cambrai
Began with an accurate artillery bombardment, and over 300 tanks successfully pushed the Germans back. However, there was a lack of British infantry reserves to break through, and the Germans regained their lost ground. This ended the idea that the Germans' spirit was broken, and Haig was widely criticised. -
RAF created
Air power had massively expanded in the fields of reconnaissance, communication, and morale. The RAF consolidated and reorganised the air force with over 22,000 planes, including long range and strategic bombers and fighters. -
Hundred Days Offensive
After a failed German offensive, the Allied command, under the Allied commander-in-chief Foch, wanted to attack. Haig was well-supplied, had better weapons and manpower. He had learned from mistakes, carrying out a particularly successful battle in Amiens, using short successive battles rather than long drawn-out ones. They had superior artillery, aircraft, and intelligence/battle surveying. Heavy casualties were still taken, but it was clear the Germans were being worn down.