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Beginning of Industrial Revolution Era
Started in Britain in 1760 and expanded through Europe until the mid-19th century. It consisted in the mutation of small workshops and domestic manufacturing to factory production responding to the demand for cotton cloth and woven textiles. Creation of steam engines (locomotives and ships), improvements in transportation (railways and canals), textile manufacturing (spinning mules), new techniques of iron production (puddling), and the rise of the middle and working class. -
American Revolution
The Americans were smuggling because of the taxes they paid to the English. They passed numerous Acts in an attempt to regain control of the American colonies, but they were all avoided. It all ended with the Boston Tea Party after the Tea Act was passed and then the Intolerable Acts (Boston unjustified lockdown) that were passed onto the US colonies after the Boston Massacre. -
Declaration of Independence
It was signed by the Founding Fathers during the Second Continental Congress, in Philadelphia State House, Pennsylvania, which stated that the 13 American colonies were independent from the United Kingdom. -
Battle of Saratoga
This battle was a major victory for the Americans. It was possible thanks to support of their French and Spanish allies. The US people didn't have a navy, neither enough troops nor generals to take on the British, so their aid helped the Americans out immensely and allowed them to outlast the British in this war. -
Battle of Yorktown
The Americans beat the British at Yorktown, which was the last major victory because a huge amount of British army’s were lost there. A couple years later the Americans officially ended the war with the Treaty of Paris signed in 1783 and fully gained their independence. -
First Treaty of Paris
Signalled the end of the war between Britain and America. As a result, the Americans fully gained their independence. -
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French Revolution
The monarchy and the established order were overthrown because of poor harvest and food shortages in 1788. This pressed Louis XVI to summon the States General with representatives from the clergy, nobility and middle class. The latter declared themselves the National Assembly, starting the Revolution. Guiding principles: liberty, equality, and fraternity. The peak of the conflict was the fall of the Bastille on July 14th, 1789. -
The Haitian Revolution
The Haitian Revolution was encouraged by the French Revolution, the Haitians wanted to declare themselves equal, through the Declaration of Rights of Man. It was a big deal for the Haitians because they had a 10:1 ratio of slavery. The Revolution was led by the radical Toussaint L’Ouverture. -
Establishment of the French Republic
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Execution of French Monarchs
Louis XVI was executed by guillotine on 21st January 1793, and Marie Antoinette on 16th October 1793. -
The Reign of Terror
The King Louis XVI tried to flee, which caused terror on the people, so they decided to execute him, thus starting the Reign of Terror. A great fear invaded the people about others invading France to punish them for punishing their King. -
Beginning of the Napoleonic Wars
Napoleon led a successful military campaign, known as the Napoleonic Wars. He was victorious in all the battles that he fought against the Austrian and the Italians, and a late military expedition to Egypt. -
Toussaint L'Ouverture declared himself the ruler of Haiti
Due to winning a series of battles, Toussaint named himself the ruler of Haiti, though he ruled as a dictator for approximately 8 years. -
Irish need for a Republic
The Irish, influenced by revolutions further from France and led by the Society of United Irishmen, sought to end British rule and establish an independent Irish Republic. The uprising was violently suppressed but it highlighted the fragility of the political situation and the potential for future unrest. This was a major catalyst for the Act of Union which united Great Britain and Ireland into the United Kingdom. -
Napoleon became First Consul
After winning the Napoleonic Wars, he became the first consul of France and brought order to the French Republic. -
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Conservatism and Monarchy in Europe
This era was marked by the Liberal and Nationalist revolutions, Great Divergence, Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment. -
Ireland joined with Great Britain
Through the Act of Union passed in 1801, which declared that the entirety of Ireland was now part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain. -
Beginning of Serbian Revolution
In 1813, occurred the first uprising, being initially successful with a government set up. However, by 1813 the Ottomans had reasserted control, imposing even stricter measures. The second uprising of 1815 -led by Milos the Great- saw the establishment of the autonomous principality of Serbia, upsetting both the Ottomans and Habsburgs. It was later recognized as fully independent, after the Ottomans were expelled and by 1882, Serbia was established as an independent kingdom. -
The Haitian won their independence
Through fighting, the revolution resulted in the abolition of slavery in Saint-Domingue, making it the first successful slave revolt in history. The revolutionaries established the independent Republic of Haiti in 1804, becoming the first independent nation in Latin America and the Caribbean, and the second republic in the Western Hemisphere. -
Congress of Vienna
The Great Powers were: Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia, which met at the Congress of Vienna in 1814. The Congress was a complex diplomatic event lasting until 1815, but was only the beginning of widespread conservative reaction to the radical changes of the French Revolution. It was a meeting of European nations that set out a strategy to maintain peace and stability throughout the continent. -
Portugal’s Revolution
Carbonari’s uprising. Constitution and liberal reform. Austrian troops made revolts in Italy were unsuccessful. Britain: King George III died. George IV succeeded him. Significant reforms. Unequal representation. Middle and working classes grew their demand for representation. Whigs introduced the Reform Bill → changes to the electoral system. Portugal’s first Constitution signed in 1822. -
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Revolutions of the 1820s
This were a series of uprisings across Europe, including Spain, Italy, Greece and Portugal, driven by nationalist and liberal movements seeking political reforms and independence from foreign rule. These revolutions aimed to challenge the conservative order established after the defeat of Napoleon and promote ideals of constitutionalism and national sovereignty. -
Greek War of Independence from the Ottoman Empire
They suffered under the weight of Ottoman oppression, heavy taxation and cultural suppression were their bitter realities of the day, this led to the idea of revolution. The call for freedom or death became the rallying cry of a nation, yearning for independence. -
Decembrist Revolt
Nicholas I of Russia took the throne after Czar Alexander I was killed. The Decembrist Revolt occurred on December 1825, when about 3,000 officers and soldiers refused to swear allegiance to the new tsar, Alexander's brother Nicholas, proclaiming instead their loyalty to the idea of a Russian constitution and a constitutional monarchy. -
Revolution against the Bourbon Monarchy
July Revolution in response to the repressive policies of Charles X. Advocation of Charles X and fall of the Bourbon Monarchy. Louis Philippe proclaimed King of France. Establishment of Constitutional Monarchy. Uprising in Brussels. King William I of the Netherlands was defeated. Revolutionaries formed a provisional government, declaring independence of the Kingdom of Belgium. End of Francis I of Italy’s reign and succeeded by Ferdinand II. -
Treaty of Constantinople
Recognized Greece as an independent state. The Great Powers installed a Bavarian Prince, Otto, as the first king of Greece. A non-Greek was chosen so as not to disturb the European balance of power and to establish a friendly government in the East Mediterranean. The birth of modern Greece marked the end of one struggle and the beginning of another. -
Queen Victoria I’s coronation
Start of the Victorian Era, which was a period of great industrial, cultural, political, scientific and military change in the UK. This era also saw the expansion of the British Empire. Many Reform Acts were passed in favour of male vote. -
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Great Famine
The Great Famine was a period of mass starvation, disease and immigration, this caused a growing resentment against British rule in Ireland. Rebellion quickly suppressed by the British authorities. -
First War of Italian Independence
Revolt against Bourbon rule, and Independence for 16 months. In the Kingdom of Sardinia, King Charles Albert granted the Constitution (the Albertine Statute) and it caused Italian unification. Papal States and Tuscany granted Constitutions.
5 days of Milan: Victory of Italy and Austrians were expelled from the city. The Republic of Venice defied Austrian rule. -
Series of Revolutions in Europe
Wave of revolutionary movements that swept across Europe, including Germany (March Revolution), Hungary and Austria (against Habsburg rule), and Italy. These uprisings were fueled by social, political, and economic grievances, with demands for democratic reforms, national unification, and social equality. Although many of these revolutions were ultimately suppressed, they left a lasting impact on European politics and society, paving the way for future reforms and nationalist movements. -
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Spread of the Industrial Revolution to Europe
Rise of Socialism. Ottoman Empire. New cultural and intellectual movements (neoclassicism, neo gothic, neo renaissance, neo baroque and rococó, and transcendentalism). -
Series of Revolutions in German Society
These revolutions failed, causing the dissolution of the Frankfurt Parliament. -
Crimean War
Russia vs. the Ottoman Empire. Britain and France declared war against Russia in 1854. Allied Forces of British, French, Ottomans and Sardinians. Russia won the Battle of Balaclava. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1856. This war meant the demonstration of modern technology and media in warfare. Russia and Britain withdrew from European affairs. Austria was neutral but lost its allies. -
Treaty of Paris
This brought an end to the Crimean War. It established the Black Sea as a neutral territory, closing it to all warships and prohibiting fortifications and the presence of armaments on its shores. -
Austro-Prussian War
Prussia’s victory in the Battle of Königgrätz caused the dissolution of the old German Confederation and establishment of the North German Confederation. Austria was now excluded from German affairs. Southern German states remained independent. Italy was awarded Venetia after siding with the Prussians during the war. Prussia now in control of the North German Confederation and declared war on France. -
Franco-Prussian War
In the Battle of Sedan, Napoleon was captured. With Prussia’s victory came the fall of Paris. Italy finally unified as the Kingdom of Italy. German Princes recognised King Wilhelm of Prussia as their Emperor in Versailles. The New German Empire was established in 1871, this showed the triumph of military authoritarianism and the failure of a liberal and constitutional system. The Second French Empire crumbled and then the Third French Republic was established, and lasted until World War II. -
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Advancements in Sciences and Arts
Europe mostly remained at peace and by the turn of the century, European Society was significantly changed and with material change came a new outlook on life. The realm of science included the development of new theories in physics (Albert Einstein's theory of relativity, Max Planck introduced quantum theory). In the arts there were new movements and styles that challenged traditional conventions (in painting, Modernism, Impressionism, Cubism, Abstractionism). -
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Second Industrial Revolution
There were technological, socioeconomic and cultural changes all across Western Europe, North America and Japan. This period was marked by steel production, electricity (powered factories, houses and street lights), internal combustion engines (powered automobiles, trucks and aeroplanes). -
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Belle Époque and Edwardian Era
The Edwardian era (1901-1910) was a period of peace and prosperity. Marked by its cultural elegance, advancements in fashion and the rise of the middle class, which began to challenge the traditional social hierarchy.
Golden age in Britain, and it coincided with France “The Belle Époque” (= "beautiful era"), which lasted from 1871 until 1914. Time of optimism, economic prosperity and cultural flourishing in France, though the term is used for all of Europe. -
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Formation of Alliances
Formation of alliances among nations. Notable alliances: Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary, formed in 1879, which later expanded to become the Triple Alliance with the inclusion of Italy in 1882. In response, France and Russia forged the Franco-Russian Alliance in 1894, aimed at countering the growing influence of the Triple Alliance. -
First Balkan War
Fueled by nationalist aspirations and territorial disputes among the Balkan states and the weakening Ottoman Empire. The First Balkan War, fought by the Balkan League (Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, and Bulgaria) against the Ottoman Empire, resulted in significant territorial gains for the Balkan states. The war ended with the Treaty of London in May 1913. -
Second Balkan War
This one erupted shortly after the first one due to disagreements over the division of territories, leading to Bulgaria's defeat by its former allies. The Balkan Wars reshaped the political map of the region, weakening the Ottoman Empire and setting the stage for further conflicts in the lead-up to World War I. The war ended with the Treaty of Bucharest in August 1913 and the Treaty of Constantinople, between Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire.