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George Whitefield Travels to America
Whitefield, an English Methodist minister, was a brilliant speaker who used raw emotional sermons to reach all classes of colonists. Attracting massive crowds, he would paint an appealing picture of God based on love, acceptance, and forgiveness. His converts, called New Lights, emphasized a personal relationship with God. Whitefield would preach a series of revivals that would become part of the Great Awakening, which would permanently alter American religious ideas and institutions. -
French and Indian War/Seven Years' War Begins
The war was fought between British colonies against the French, each side being supported by Native American tribes. Tribes allied with the French hoping to keep British expansion at bay. Triggered by both sides wanting power over North America, specifically the Ohio River Valley, Britain would win the war, providing them enormous territorial gains in NA.Despite the British victory, disputes over subsequent frontier policy and paying the war’s expenses led to colonial discontent. -
Albany Congress
Occurring during the French and Indian War, delegates from the 7 colonies would meet Iroquois Chiefs with the hopes of allying against the French. The other purpose was to present the Albany Plan of Union by Ben Franklin: the colonies should pool their resources and militias and stand together as one against the French, as Americans, not individual colonies. As expected, the proposal failed, but it raised the first ideas of unity and put the future Founding Fathers into contact. -
Passage of the Sugar Act
The Proclamation of 1763 a year earlier had banned settlement past the Appalachians to avoid tribal aggression, angering colonists, who moved West anyways. The French and Indian War had been costly, putting Britain in deep debt. To increase revenue Parliament passed the Sugar Act. “No taxation without representation” would be a rallying cry for protesting colonists. The Proclamation combined with economic sanctions like the Sugar and Stamp Acts increased colonial hostility toward the British. -
Passage of the Stamp Act
The Stamp Act came a year after the hated Sugar Act. The Act levied duties on all paper products. Outraged, nine state assemblies would send delegates to the Stamp Act Congress, where they challenged the constitutionality of both acts on the grounds that only elected officials could create taxes. Less radical delegates petitioned the King to repeal the acts. Boycotts and violent protests broke out, led by radical patriots. It is in this civil disobedience that we see the Revolution begin. -
Boston Massacre
Colonists protested the Townshend Acts (1767) widely. Thousands of troops were sent to the colonies, especially in Boston. Conflict was abundant. On the night of the massacre, 9 British soldiers fired into a crowd of townspeople, killing 5 of them.They were later found not guilty, but the meaning of the attack was poignant, especially to independence-minded/radical colonists. The Boston Massacre would strengthen their resolve and stance. Propaganda spread by Paul Revere fanned the flames. -
Boston Tea Party
Parliament would pass the Tea Act earlier in 1773, lowering taxes on the East India Company. Patriots viewed this as bribery to get them to forsake "taxation without representation" and a tactic to gain colonial support for the tax already enforced. Led by the Sons of Liberty and Samuel Adams, Patriots would board 3 British ships and throw $900,000 worth of tea overboard, about 1.8 million in tax revenue. King George and Loyalists were outraged at what they saw as direct defiance of the crown. -
Cotton Gin Patented
Eli Whitney’s cotton gin made the process of separating cotton from its seeds much more efficient and the growing of cotton much more profitable. The machine made the cotton industry of the South explode, driving up demand for slaves in the process. The South would get rich off of King Cotton, but millions of slaves were left to suffer as the invention had a direct role in maintaining slavery as an institution. It strengthen America’s economy and also revolutionized the textile industry. -
First Continental Congress
Britain instituted the Intolerable Acts as punishment for the Boston Tea Party. This included closing down Boston Port and dissolving colonial assemblies. Delegates from all colonies except Georgia met in Philadelphia to agree on a response. Radicals wanted to declare war and fight for independence. Conservatives wanted to try reconciliation. Reconciliation won out, so they sent the King the Olive Branch Petition asking for representation in Parliament. King George was infuriated and refused. -
Battles of Lexington and Concord
With tensions building, Patriots had started to build up weapon stashes should it come to armed rebellion against the King. The British tried to seize the caches at Concord, intelligence fell into the hands of Paul Revere and others. Revere’s Midnight Ride warned Patriots of the incoming British as minutemen assembled at Lexington town green against Redcoats. The "shot heard 'round the world" was fired, marking the start of the American Revolution. It was politically disastrous for Britain. -
Colonies Declare Independence
Loyalists and anti-Revolution delegates had been soundly defeated in the Continental Congress. The Declaration of Independence would be drawn up mainly by Thomas Jefferson, emphasizing a range of Enlightenment ideas such as the equality of men ("All men are created equal") and people unalienable rights, as well as listing out every grievance the colonists held against King George. It was the first time in history a nation's people formally asserted their rights to choose their own government. -
Battle of Saratoga
The British plan to cut off New England was a three-pronged campaign. British General John Burgoyne scored some victories at first by attacking quickly, but then their pace slowed as Burgoyne had his men stop, pitch tents and eat a fancy dinner. Patriots from several neighboring states would engage in a guerrilla attack against Burgoyne and his troops. The victory at Saratoga was a turning point in the war, securing financial support, alliances, and reinforcements from other countries. -
Treaty of Alliance
US diplomats had been working since the beginning of the war to secure a deal with France, an enemy of Britain. Initially, France was hesitant, believing the war was a lost cause, but the Patriot victory at Saratoga convinced them otherwise. The treaty recognized US sovereignty and agreed that neither party would pursue a separate peace without US independence. French troops, reinforcements, supplies, and military training were crucial to the war’s outcome. The war is not won without France. -
Battle of Yorktown
Yorktown was the decisive engagement of the Revolution. British General Cornwallis planned to let Washington push him back to well-fortified Yorktown, where the British could spend the winter in comfort while Washington’s troops suffered. Washington, however, knew the French Navy had already defeated the British Navy, Cornwallis was surrounded on both land and sea. Cornwallis was forced to surrender, which would forecast the end of British rule in the colonies and the birth of a new nation. -
Treaty of Paris
After the defeat at Yorktown, Britain, France, and the US began to negotiate a treaty. The treaty came almost 2 years after Yorktown because France and Spain hoped to acquire other territory from Britain. American diplomats secured favorable terms in 1783. The Treaty of Paris officially ended the Revolution and formally recognized the US as an independent nation from the Atlantic to the Mississippi and north to British Canada.The US and France also signed a perpetual alliance of friendship. -
Shays Rebellion
Shays Rebellion was led by Daniel Shays, a Revolutionary War veteran. He was not paid for his service, and his farm went into foreclosure; other farmers were in the same boat. Increased taxes were also an issue. Shays and his men burned down courthouses to prevent foreclosure. With no standing army, the government couldn’t do anything, and a private army had to be raised by the wealthy to put it down. The rebellion exposed the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation established in 1777. -
Constitution Ratified
Ratification was a battle with Federalists and Anti-Federalists. Scared by Shays’ Rebellion, Federalists like Washington wanted a strong federalist government to put down future uprisings. Anti-Federalists feared a strong central government would devolve in tyranny. They were placated by the Bill of Rights, which established a list of protections for each citizen. The Constitution created an ideal balance between federal government and state governments, and governs the US -
Washington's Inauguration
General Washington retired as a war hero leading the Continental Army to victory, but the new federal government, needing a unifying figure and to establish trust, persuaded Washington to become the first US president. He would establish the court system and set many presidential customs like the Cabinet and two-term presidency as well as important precedents, setting the office's future roles and powers. Washington despised the party system and did not identify but followed Federalist policy. -
Alien and Sedition Acts
Passed by John Adams, the Alien Act gave the president power to deport any alien considered dangerous. The Sedition Act made it illegal to publish materials critical of the president or Congress. They were set to maintain Federalist power in an attempt to restrict those who opposed Adams and the Federalists. The Acts proved Jefferson right that a federal government could be “weaponized” against the people, and the question of states’ rights to nullify unfair laws wasn’t completely resolved. -
Thomas Jefferson's Election
to the Federalist Era and ushered in the Jeffersonian Era. Adams stepped aside without conflict, making it the first transition from one political party to another in US history. It proved America was capable of having peaceful and democratic transitions of power and political/cultural change could occur without violence or bloodshed. Jefferson’s victory and resulting change in political ideology is known as the “Revolution of 1800”. -
Marbury v Madison
As Jefferson took power, Adams filled federal courts with loyal federalists. Jefferson tells Madison, his secretary of state, withhold 4 undelivered commissions. Marbury sued to get his job, taking the case to the Supreme Court. Chief Justice Marshall sides with Madison based on the fact they found part of the Judiciary Acts unconstitutional and thus void. In doing so, it established judicial review, or the power to declare a law unconstitutional, enhancing the system of checks and balances. -
Louisiana Purchase
As Washington’s Pinckney Treaty was not a permanent solution to US control of the Mississippi, Jefferson was offered the Louisiana Territory by France for 15 million, a bargain. Jefferson, a strict constructionist, wrestled with the choice. He ultimately made the purchase, acquiring 828,000 acres of land and securing the Mississippi. The purchase doubled the size of the US and expanded the nation westward. To explore the vast new territory, Jefferson would order the Lewis and Clark expedition. -
War Declared on Britain
With Britain at conflict with France, they were adamant that the US not trade with the latter. The British Navy would kidnap US sailors and force them into its own service, called impressment. They would take entire ships and their cargos, impeding American ability to trade. Britain had also armed Indians, which Americans interpreted as an act of aggression. Congress declared war, and victory in the “Second War for Independence'' or War of 1812 would be key to the survival of the young US. -
Treaty of Ghent
In 1814, Britain was ready for peace after two years of fighting.Terms weren’t favorable for either side, and basically retained the conditions and boundaries prior to the war. However, the effect in America was much deeper. People began identifying more as Americans and less as members of their state.Victories, the Battle of New Orleans caused a sense of nationalism to sweep the nation.Also represented the increasing respect for America on the world stage, who was now at the adult table. -
Missouri Compromise
With regional tensions mounting, when Missouri applied to enter the Union as a slave state, Congress debated whether or not slavery should be allowed to spread west of the Mississippi. Henry Clay had a compromise: To preserve the balance of slave and free states, Maine would enter as a free state and Missouri would enter as a slave state. States north of the 20th parallel aside from Missouri would be free and those south of it would be slave. The compromise held off the issue for 3 more decades. -
"Monroe Doctrine" Declared
President James Monroe, in a speech to Congress, outlined American foreign policy toward the Western Hemisphere. Monroe warned European nations not to interfere in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere and with new countries in Latin America. This included further colonization, military intervention, or other influences. Any breach of the Doctrine would be seen as a threat to the US. A foundation piece of American foreign policy, the Monroe Doctrine helped assert the US as a leader of the West. -
Andrew Jackson Elected
Jackson fared well at the polls as states began to extend the franchise to all white men regardless of property. Jackson was a War of 1812 hero, his crowning moment his victory in New Orleans. His policies emphasized the role of the common man, with opponents accusing him of catering to “King Mob” and seizing too much power. Jackson led the first modern political campaign, introduced the spoils system, transitioned to the Second Party System, and strengthened the power of the executive branch. -
Indian Removal Act
Jackson’s aggressive Indian removal policy led to the creation of Native American reserves on land west of the Mississippi. However, native resistance such as the Cherokee led to the forced removal of tribes. The Act led to tragedies like the Trail of Tears, where Natives were forced off of their land into unfamiliar territory. It was devastating for the indigenous population and their way of life and changed how the government dealt with Natives inside state borders,and opened lands for whites. -
Nat Turner's Rebellion
Nat Turner was a slave that led a rebellion against slave owners killing 55 men, women, and children. Turner was hanged, but planters were deeply disturbed. Virginia considered a gradual emancipation law, but chose to impose additional restrictions and even harsher penalties on the education, movement, and assembly of slaves. Pro-slavery attitudes were hardened and the idea that planters would end slavery willingly was dead. The rebellion increased tension between North and South as well. -
Battle of the Alamo
After Mexico adopted a new constitution with stricter immigration rules, angering many American settlers in Texas, a Texas War Party formed to fight for an independent Republic of Texas. Mexican president Santa Anna led his troops to put down a rebellion at the Alamo fort, where no Texan soldiers survived. “Remember the Alamo” became a rallying and inspiring war cry in the quest for Texan independence, which was attained on April 21, 1836. Texas would be annexed by the US in 1845. -
Manifest Destiny
Manifest Destiny was coined by John O’Sullivan and was used to describe the cultural belief that America was destined by God to expand from coast to coast. Many Americans believed that expansion was necessary and it was their duty to spread democracy, to conquer and prosper. Beliefs of divine right drove Westward Expansion. Texan Independence, the Oregon Trail, and the California Gold Rush would be justified with the term. As new states were added to the US, the issue of slavery intensified. -
Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo
The Mexican-American War had begun in 1846 over a border dispute between Texas and Mexico. President Polk, in a speech, convinced Congress to go to war with Mexico, where US forces captured Mexico City and forced Mexico to sign a treaty.The Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo ended the war and recognized Texas as a part of the US and that its border was the Rio Grande. It also forced the Mexican Cession, where Mexico ceded 55% of its territory to the US, beginning a debate over slavery in the new lands. -
Seneca Falls Convention
Hosted by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, two prominent women’s rights activists, 68 women and 32 men attended the convention in Seneca Falls, NY. They agreed upon a Declaration of Sentiments, outlining the goals of the movement. They sought to end the idea of women being naturally inferior to men and give them greater freedoms, including more job opportunities and the right to vote. It was a landmark event for the women’s rights movement, essentially launching and solidifying it. -
Compromise of 1850
With California ready to enter the Union as a free state, Southerners feared it would disrupt the delicate regional balance. Under high tensions, Senator Henry Clay proposed a compromise: 1) California would be a free state 2) Slave trade would be abolished in DC 3) Strict fugitive slave laws enacted nationwide 4) New territories applying for statehood would decide to be free or slave via popular sovereignty. Secession had been temporarily avoided but increased tensions along sectional lines. -
Bleeding Kansas
As Kansas was set to vote on slavery, droves of pro-slavery men from Missouri entered the state and stole the election. Fraud was obvious, but Congress did not redo the election; Kansas would be a slave state. Violent skirmishes broke out between abolitionists and pro-slavery “border ruffians”. Most dramatically, John Brown killed 5 pro-slavery men in the Pottawatomie Massacre. Tensions over slavery had reached a head nationwide as the events in Kansas would be a key precursor to the Civil War. -
Dred Scott v. Sanford
Dred Scott, a slave that had moved with his owner to a free state, sued for his freedom on the grounds that his master had no right to keep him in bondage. A decade later, the case made it to the Supreme Court, who ruled against Scott. A devastating blow to the abolitionist movement, it ruled that slaves were not American citizens and could not sue in federal court, declared the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional, and stated Congress had no authority to ban slavery from a federal territory. -
Abraham Lincoln Elected
Lincoln, an Illinois abolitionist and Republican, made preserving the Union at all costs the focus of his presidency, not emancipation.The Lincoln-Douglas debates seemed to confirm Southern fears that Lincoln would come after their slaves, and his election was a breaking point foran already unstable nation. The South no longer felt that they had a voice in politics and feared Lincoln’s anti-slavery policies.South Carolina would secede first from the Union, with other southern states following. -
Battle of Fort Sumter
The first battle of the Civil War started when Lincoln sent a convoy to resupply Fort Sumter, near Charleston, SC. The first shots of the war were fired when Confederate troops bombarded the fort, forcing a Union surrender. The battle marked the official beginning of the Civil War along with its first casualties. With the Union's loss, more southern states joined the Confederacy including Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee, prompting Lincoln to call for volunteer soldiers from the Union. -
Homestead Act Passed
Northeastern cities were becoming overcrowded by the 1860s, and land in rural areas was becoming more expensive. Vast territory in the West was lying economically unproductive. To accelerate settlement of the West, the Homestead Act offered 160 acres of free land in the West to any head of household who wanted to claim it, as long as they lived there for 5 years and were productive. Land equals opportunity, and a wide range of people were attracted to settle the West, spurring economic growth. -
Siege of Vicksburg
Vicksburg, the last Confederate fort on the Mississippi, was of high strategic importance to the Confederacy. General Grant led a month-long siege, forcing its surrender. By the end, the Union had assumed complete control of the Mississippi, completing the Anaconda Plan and splitting the South in 2, cutting off western Confederate states from vital supplies and troops. 30,000 Confederate troops were captured, and Lincoln would promote Grant. The North finally had someone to match Robert E. Lee. -
Emancipation Proclamation
Lincoln seized the Union victory at Antietam, the bloodiest day in US history, as a politically savvy time to announce the Emancipation Proclamation. The Proclamation freed all slaves in the South, but slavery was allowed to remain in border states and Confederate areas occupied by Union soldiers. The Emancipation Proclamation changed the aim of the war from preserving the Union to also being a fight for freedom for slaves, in the process dissuading European countries from helping the South. -
Battle of Gettysburg & Gettysburg Address
Fought in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, the battle was a crushing defeat for the Confederacy. The Confederates lost 28,000 men, more than a third of Robert E. Lee’s army. Considered the turning point of the war, the Union victory prevented the Confederacy’s last full-scale invasion of the North. The battle led to the Gettysburg Address in which Lincoln redefined the Civil War as a struggle for freedom and democracy. FromGettysburg the Union would gather momentum that led to their eventual victory. -
Lee's Surrender at Appomattox
With Lee’s army crippled after Gettyburg, Grant viciously pursued him in the Final Virginia Campaign. Desperately low on supplies, Lee rushes toward Appomattox Courthouse, a Confederate storehouse. Grant’s troops diverged to slow Lee down while others marched ahead. When Lee arrived at Appomattox, he was left surrounded and forced to surrender. Confederate troops were paroled and allowed to return home. It was the end of the Civil War, and Lincoln’s plan to preserve the Union had succeeded. -
President Lincoln Assassinated
Lincoln easily won the election of 1864 despite fears that he wouldn’t. He immediately began devising strategies for post-war Reconstruction, including the 10% plan. Radical Republicans proposed a harsher plan, but during negotiations Lincoln was assassinated by Confederate fanatic John Wilkes Booth. His death dramatically changed the Reconstruction Era as plans were thrown into disarray. Lincoln’s successor Andrew Johnson, a southerner, would not live up to Lincoln’s quality of leadership. -
Reconstruction Act of 1867 Passed
Engineered by Radical Republicans, a Reconstruction plan was made, dividing the former Confederacy into 5 military districts each overseen by a Union general. States had to disenfranchise ex-Confederates, give freedmen the right to vote, and pass the 14th Amendment before being allowed back in the Union. Johnson would veto, but Congress was able to override it. Further conflict with Johnson would lead to his impeachment in 1868. A plan for punishing the South and lifting up freedmen had emerged. -
Transcontinental Railroad Completed
Congress provided funding for a transcontinental railroad in 1862, hiring 2 competing companies: Central Pacific, which started in Sacramento and built East, and Union Pacific, which started in Omaha and built West. They were given a parcel of land for every mile completed, causing towns to pop up along the railroad. When it was completed in 1869, the US was capable of convenient trade with both Europe and Asia. It facilitated Westward Expansion but also escalated conflict with Native Americans. -
15th Amendment Ratified
After passage of the 13th Amendment in 1865 that ended slavery, Congress recognized the importance of securing civil rights for freedmen. First, the 14th Amendment was passed, granting slaves full citizenship however, worries arose that it wouldn’t offer enough protection against Southern Black Codes. The 15th Amendment was passed to protect citizens’ rights to vote, regardless of race.Its fatal flaw was making no provisions regarding poll taxes and literacy tests, foreshadowing Jim Crow laws. -
Battle of The Little Bighorn
Due to the discovery of gold, the US gov. violated a treaty with the Lakota Sioux that had ensured their land rights to the Black Hills. Soldiers tried to force the tribe onto reservations, but they fought back. Under the leadership of Chief Sitting Bull, Indians killed General Custer and his 259 soldiers down to the last man. While it was a glorious victory for the tribe, whites used “Custer’s Last Stand” as an example of Native savagery and increased efforts to force Natives onto reservations. -
Dawes Severalty Act
Passed in 1887, the Dawes Act was supposed to protect Native American property rights. It offered 160 acres of land to each Native American family, or 80 acres to single Native men, who would farm it. However, it was a disaster, responsible for the loss of 90 million acres of Native land. This was due to grant lands being taken from reservations and the seizing of “surplus” acres from tribes. The Act abolished tribal-self governance and sped up forced assimilation of Natives into white culture. -
Wounded Knee Massacre
The Ghost Dance Movement combined traditional Native beliefs with Christianity, with Natives believing that a proper lifestyle and ceremonial dances would restore the days before white settlement. It was a unifying movement for Natives and deemed dangerous and thus outlawed. Lakotas were practicing the dance on the Pine Ridge Reservation when the US Army attacked them, slaughtering an estimated 150-300 innocent people.The massacre marked the definitive end of Indian resistance to white settlers.