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War Among Empires
Historic European rivalries and longstanding Empires fought for control of Europe and the world during this period of colonization and imperialism. North America was particularly contentious between Britain, France, and Spain because of sugar-producing islands in the Caribbean and valuable fur trade. Four major wars during this time period were King William's War, Queen Anne's War, King George's War, and the Seven Years War. -
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King William's War (1)
The first in a series of four major European wars in North America. The British tried and failed to take Quebec. In response, French-backed Amerindians burned British frontier settlements. -
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Enlightenment Ideas in the Colonies
Enlightenment ideas like deism, the belief in a God who created the world but left it alone; rationalism, the trust in human reason; and the social contract, the idea that governments are to protect liberty and can have their power taken away by the people, influenced founding fathers like Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and Franklin and were used by the colonists to justify splitting from Britain. -
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Queen Anne's War (2)
The second in a series of European wars in North America. The British took Nova Scotia and earned trading rights in the Spanish colonies in the Americas. -
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King George's War (3)
The third in a series of European wars in North America. As James Oglethorpe repelled Spanish attacks on Georgia, New England colonies took Louisbourg from the French (but Britain traded it back during the peace treaty at the end of the war for gains in India, angering the New England colonists). -
The Albany Congress
A congress of nine colonies is held in Albany to discuss the Albany Plan of Union, a sort of constitution written by Benjamin Franklin that would unite the colonies' governments, recruiting of troops, and taxation powers. This was the first major show of colonial unity since the Great Awakening that prompted colonists to question authority. It did not take effect due to colonial rivalries and senses of self-sufficiency, but it set precedent for the U.S. Congress under the Constitution. -
Washington Defeated at Fort Duquesne
A militia sent by the governor of Virginia and led by young Colonel George Washington to guard the disputed Fort Duquesne is defeated by the French and their Amerindians allies and forced to retreat. -
Braddock Defeated
A British party from Virginia led by General Edward Braddock loses in battle during the Seven Years War -
Invasion of Canada Blocked
The French block a British invasion of Canada during the Seven Years War. -
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Seven Years War
A territorial conflict between the British and their colonies and the French and their Amerindian allies. It was also called the French and Indian War in the 13 colonies. It was won by Britain in 1763, though the beginning of the war was difficult for the British. The war showcased colonial political power and confidence, though the British were unimpressed. -
Louisbourg Retaken
Britain retakes Louisbourg from France during the Seven Years War. New England colonists had previously taken it during King George's War but Britain had returned it at the end in exchange for gains in India. -
Quebec Taken
Quebec surrenders to British General James Wolfe during the Seven Years War. -
Montreal Taken
Britain takes Montreal from France during the Seven Years War. -
Peace of Paris
The Peace of Paris is negotiated, ending the Seven Years War. Great Britain acquires both Canada and Spanish Florida, greatly increasing its empire in North America. To recompensate Spain for its loss of Florida, France surrenders Louisiana to the Spanish, essentially ending France's claim on North America. -
British and Colonial Perspectives of the Seven Years War
At the end of the Seven Years War, Great Britain was supreme in NA and the dominant naval power in the world, Amerindian freedom was challenged, the colonies were safe from attacks from European powers. The British viewed their colonies as too weak or unwilling to protect the British Empire in NA and unimpressive militarily, so they increased their own military presence in the colonies. However, the colonies were self-confident and unimpressed with British troops and military leadership. -
Pontiac's Rebellion
Chief Pontiac led an Amerindian assault on frontier forts and settlements in the Great Lakes area in protest of British occupation and settlement after the Seven Years War. A historically significant aspect of this war was that it was quelled by British soldiers, not a colonial militia. The end of the Seven Years War saw a change in British policy that would lead to conflict with the colonies; Britain maintained a military presence in the colonies and taxed them rather than people in Britain. -
Proclamation of 1763
Prevented colonists from settling past the Appalachian Mountains in an attempt to prevent hostilities with Amerindians. This proclamation infuriated colonists who believed westward expansion to be their right after helping the British win the Seven Years War. The period after the Seven Years War saw a contentious British policy change; salutary neglect ended as Britain maintained a military presence in the colonies and taxed without representation. -
The Sugar Act
Placed duties on foreign sugar and other luxuries in an attempt to both control the sugar trade and raise revenue. -
The Stamp Act
Required revenue stamps to be put on most printed paper in the colonies. Historically significant because it was the first direct tax on the people in the colonies (other taxes were only paid by merchants in trade). This act prompted boycotts and action by the Sons and Daughters of Liberty, a group that would scare British tax agents. The Stamp Act Congress met to resolve that only colonial governments should be able to approve taxes. This act was repealed by replaced by the Declaratory Act. -
The Quartering Act
Required colonists to give British soldiers food and lodging. -
Declaratory Act
Powerful act created by Parliament as the Stamp Act was repealed. It essentially gave Parliament the right to do anything, but it was not immediately contentious because the colonists did not pay it much attention while celebrating the end of the Stamp Act. -
Townshend Acts
Charles Townshend and Parliament enacted new duties on colonial imports of tea, glass, and paper. The acts also allowed British officials to search for smuggled goods with a writ of assistance, which allowed them to search anywhere. Common colonists accepted the acts but leaders protested soon after. John Dickinson wrote Letters From a Farmer in Pennsylvania in response to this, saying "yes" to Britain regulating commerce but "no" to taxation without representation. -
Massachusetts Circular Letter
James Otis and Samuel Adams wrote this to urge colonial legislatures to petition Parliament to repeal the Townshend Acts. British officials tried to block the transfer of this letter. The letter ended up encouraged boycotting and smuggling but more British troops were sent in response. -
Townshend Acts Repealed
The Townshend Acts are repealed at the urging of new British PM Frederick North due to the low revenue they collected. This brought economic prosperity in the colonies and the end of the boycott. Britain maintained a small tax on tea for the symbolic purpose of showing that they still had taxation powers. -
Boston Massacre
As crowds harassed British guards by a customs house in Boston, five colonists were shot. While lawyer John Adams defended the soldiers in court, his outspoken cousin Samuel Adams framed the incident as a "massacre" in order to rile up the colonists against Britain. -
Committees of Correspondence
Committees initiated by Samuel Adams that regularly exchanged letters about suspicious British activities. The Virginia House of Burgesses set up similar committees a year later in 1773. A major issue discussed by these committees was the Gaspee, a hated British customs ship burned by colonists disguised as Amerindians in 1772. -
The Gaspee
A hated British customs ship infamous for catching colonial smugglers that ran shore in 1772. Colonists disguised as Amerindians set it on fire, prompting a British investigative commission. -
Tea Act
In an effort to help the financially struggling British East India Company, this act made British East India Company tea plus tax even cheaper than smuggled Dutch tea. This was boycotted as a boycott of British taxation powers, leading to the Boston Tea Party. -
Boston Tea Party
In protest of the Tea Act (1773), Bostonians disguised as Amerindians dumped 342 chests of British tea in the harbor. Some colonists hailed the Bostonians as patriots defending liberty, while others viewed the Tea Party as a destruction of private property. -
The Coercive Acts
One of the two groups of Intolerable Acts designed to punish the colonists.
1. Port Act - closed the port of Boston
2. Massachusetts Government Act - reduced the powers of Massachusetts' legislature
3. Administration of Justice Act - allowed royal officials to be tried in Britain rather than in the colonies
4. Quartering Act - (was expanded) -
Intolerable Acts
A set of acts designed to punish the colonists. They led to more public resistance in the 13 colonies. The two main groups were the Coercive Acts and the Quebec Act. -
Quebec Act
Act designed to organize Canada, establish Catholicism as its official religion, set up a Canadian government without a representative assembly, and extend the boundary of Quebec. This act, mostly impacting British Canada, infuriated the colonists due to their fear of Parliament's power. -
Declaration and Resolves
Declaration passed by the First Continental Congress that urged King George III to restore colonial rights and redress grievances. To appease Parliament, it recognized Parliament's power over Congress. -
First Continental Congress
- Spurred by the Intolerable Acts
- All colonies except for Georgia
- Meant only to protest, not rebel
-
Suffolk Resolves
Declaration passed by the First Continental Congress that called for the repeal of the Intolerable Acts, military preparations, and boycotts. -
Continental Association
Network created by the First Continental Congress whose purpose was to enforce the Suffolk Resolves, a declaration that called for the repeal of the Intolerable Acts, military preparations, and boycotts. -
Prohibatory Act
Act passed by Parliament that declared the colonies in rebellion. Trade and shipping were prohibited later. -
Olive Branch Petition
The delegates of the Second Continental Congress pledged loyalty to Britain and asked for peace and the protection of their rights. King George III dismissed this and signed the Prohibitory Act, declaring the colonies in rebellion. Trade and shipping were prohibited later. -
Second Continental Congress
The delegates reconvened in Philadelphia in the wake of Lexington & Concord. They were very divided; much of NE wanted to separate but the middle colonies held onto hope for reconciliation. By passing the Declaration of the Causes and Necessities for Taking Up Arms and creating the Olive Branch Petition, America was essentially fighting and seeking peace simultaneously. -
Declaration of the Causes and Necessities for Taking Up Arms
Declaration by the Second Continental Congress that called on the colonies to provide troops for a colonial military. Washington was appointed commander-in-chief and Benedict Arnold (who later betrayed the Americans when he believed the war was a lost cause) was sent to raid Quebec in order to distract the British. -
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Revolutionary War Events
Lexington & Concord (1775)
Bunker Hill (1775)
Various British victories (1776-1777)
Crossing the Delaware (1776)
Saratoga (1777)
Americans starving at Valley Forge (1777-1778)
Siege of Charlestown
Victories traded (1778-1781)
Battle of Yorktown (1781)
Treaty of Paris (1783) -
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Revolutionary War
War that formed a new national identity in the colonies. America defeated Britain's superior military to gain independence. America fought an attrition war, meaning they were defensive and only meant not to be defeated. They also relied more on guerilla tactics and allied with France later in the war. Britain's superior military meant to divide the colonies north and south and conquer them this way. They had loyalist help and aimed to encourage slave revolts and blockade ports. -
Lexington & Concord
British troops were sent to take military supplies from Concord. Paul Revere and William Dawes warned the minutemen of Lexington that the British were coming and the minutemen set themselves up to block them. Someone fired the "shot heard around the world" and the Americans were forced to retreat. On the way from Concord to Boston, the British were ambushed by Americans and suffered ~250 casualties. This marked the beginning of the war, though Britain did not entirely consider it a war. -
Bunker Hill
The British took Breed's Hill from Americans but only after many casualties. Americans claimed a sort of victory for this battle because they lost but inflicted serious damage on the British army. -
Common Sense
- Direct attack on King George III and the concept of monarchy
- Written for common people
- Argues that the war is already here
- Breaks the last link of the empire: the king
- Argues that American should not be ruled by a corrupt island
- Angered loyalists and concerned patriots (they thought Common Sense might disrupt their strategic plans)
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Colonial Allegiance in 1776
40% Patriots
40% Neutral (these flocked to the Patriot side after Common Sense)
20% Loyalists ("Tories") -
Crossing the Delaware
A ceasefire was issued due to winter weather and Christmas Eve. Washington devised a daring plan to surprise British and Hessian (German mercenaries) forces in Trenton, NJ. The Americans were delayed from arriving at night but instead found the enemy drunk in the morning. 800 Hessians were immediately captured. This unlikely but decisive American victory encouraged Congress, convinced soldiers to stay, and boosted morale. -
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Women in the Revolutionary Era
During the war, women ran businesses and provided food & clothes to the Continental military. However, others took even more active roles. The Daughters of Liberty opposed British actions through boycotts and supporting the colonial military. Mary McCauley (a.k.a. Molly Pitcher) took her husband's place at the Battle of Monmouth. Deborah Sampson posed as a man for a year to fight in the Continental military. This was notable given the era. Republican motherhood was prominent in this period. -
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British Victories
Various British victories made American victory look impossible. New York was burned in 1776. -
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Republican Social Ideals
Republican motherhood describes the belief that a woman's most important duty in society is to raise and educate her children so they become effective members of society. Though this may be seen as stifling women's rights (and in some ways certainly did), it is important to consider the perspective of the time: this was an honorable role for a woman to hold.
Similar to this is civic virtue, which is the belief that democracy depends on the unselfish commitment of each citizen to public good. -
Declaration of Independence
Document declaring to the world the causes of separation from Britain. It favored independence over reconciliation and contained a list of grievances against King George III and his government. Richard Henry Lee (VA) brought a resolution (The Lee Resolution) to declare independence that was passed on 7/2/1776. The D of I written by Jefferson and four other delegates was passed on 7/4/1776. -
Battle of Saratoga
The British launched a three-pronged attack on NY. British General Burgoyne's troops were blocked by Benedict Arnold's Green Mountain Boys, a rough group of highly effective militiamen. The remainder of his forces converged on Saratoga, where American General Horatio Gates defeated the damaged and unsupported British army. This was a watershed moment in the Revolution because it convinced France to completely join the war. -
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Adams Presidency
A shorter presidency by Federalist John Adams that was tainted by the ambitious Federalist Era. With Dem-Rep Jefferson as his VP, Adams navigated the angering XYZ Affair and signed into law the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts. Jefferson unseated him in 1800 due to unpopular Federalist acts and taxes. -
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Valley Forge
Washington and French General Lafayette's force starved at Valley Forge during the winter of 1777-1778. There was sickness, lack of water, frostbite, people leaving, and lack of money. However, Washington and Lafayette took the time to train their troops and the American army managed to persevere. -
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Victories Traded
Both sides trade victories until Yorktown. -
Siege of Charlestown
British forces under General Clinton, General Cornwallis, and Lieutenant Colonel Prevost completely surrounded a ~5000 man army commanded by General Benjamin Lincoln at Charleston. The British refused to accept only the city and allow the army to escape. They besieged and burned the city until General Lincoln and his entire army was forced to surrender in the greatest American defeat of the war. -
Battle of Yorktown
British General Cornwallis, hoping to get to Virginia, marched his army north from Charleston. Hearing of Cornwallis' move, Washington began a mission to stop him at Yorktown. Tired American forces marched 200 miles in 15 days while French forces under General Rochambeau approached by sea. Both arrived simultaneously and brilliantly stopped Cornwallis at Yorktown. Cornwallis surrendered on "the day the world turned upside-down." This showed the British that the war was too costly to continue. -
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Articles of Confederation
The Articles of Confederation, the original constitution of the United States, is written by John Dickinson. However, it united the states into a "firm league of friendship" instead of a unified nation. The founders, afraid of a tyrannical government, greatly weakened the sphere of the new government under the AofC by excluding the power to tax, the power to regulate commerce, or executive or judicial branches. The next decade proved the new government was too weak to protect the nation. -
Treaty of Paris
Gave America:
1. Full independence
2. The territory east of the Mississippi River, between Canada and Florida
3. Freedom from British military presence (which had been there since the French & Indian War -
Mount Vernon, VA
Conference of representatives from VA, MD, DE, and PA hosted by Washington at his home, Mount Vernon. -
Land Ordinance of 1785
Set up policies for surveying and selling western lands. The government sold land to settlers for revenue. This was one of the few accomplishments of the Articles of Confederation. It was especially important because it raised some money for the government, which had to ask states for money because it could not tax. -
Annapolis Convention
Further discussion about the problematic Articles of Confederation. All 13 states were invited, but only five came. Following this, Madison and Hamilton convinced the other representatives to hold the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia the following year. -
Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom
A document written by Thomas Jefferson and other reformers in an attempt to separate church and state, especially in Virginia. Similarly, many churches were disestablished, meaning they were unselected as the church supported by the government in an area. The Anglican Church also reformed as the Protestant Episcopal Church following the Revolution due to fears of being negatively associated with Britain. -
Shays's Rebellion
A rebellion led by MA farmer and revolutionary war veteran Captain Daniel Shays. Shays and his followers rallied against high state taxes, imprisonment for debt, and lack of paper money. They stopped tax collection and closed debtor's courts. Congress was unable to pay its military to stop Shays. Finally, the MA militia ended the rebellion as Shays tried to seize weapons from the federal arsenal in Springfield. This showcased the weaknesses of the AofC and led to the Constitutional Convention. -
Northwest Ordinance of 1787
Set up a system for becoming a self-governing province and then a state. Notably, it outlaws slavery. This decision will prove contentious in the coming century. Similar to the Land Ordinance of 1785, this was one of the great accomplishments of the Articles of Confederation.
This and the Land Ordinance of 1785 attracted both white and black Americans; however, government auctions favored the wealthy as land was sold in bulk. The wealthy sometimes bought land and sold it in smaller pieces. -
Constitutional Convention
A debate in Philadelphia regarding the proposed Constitution but initially meant only to revise the AofC. Congress approved the convention and called on states to send delegates. Only RI did not attend. The delegates, who became known as framers, decided to conduct business secretly. Washington led the convention as Madison, Hamilton, Morris, and Dickinson crafted specific articles of the Constitution. Major debates regarded representation, slavery, trade, the presidency, and ratification. -
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The Federalist Papers
Highly persuasive arguments penned by Madison, Hamilton, and Jay under the pseudonym "Publius" that provided the rationale for each part of the Constitution in order to urge NY to ratify the Constitution. They were a major part of the Federalist campaign to achieve ratification. Federalists believed in a stronger national gov't with a representative legislature, while Anti-Federalists believed in a weaker national gov't and at least a Bill of Rights to protect individual liberties. -
Hamilton's Financial Plan
- The national gov't incurs all state debts to accumulate national debt, gain foreign credit, and force unity in the Union [approved]
- Whiskey tax and a protective tariff on foreign manufactured goods to protect American industry [rejected]
- National Bank to regulate money by holding federal funds and loaning them to states. This was contested by Jefferson, who viewed it as unconstitutional. Hamilton justified it through the Elastic Clause [approved]
-
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Global Revolutions
The American Revolution influenced the oppressed worldwide. The French Revolution (1789-1799), the Irish Revolution of 1798, the Haitian Revolution (1791-1804), and numerous Latin American revolutions all cited the Declaration of Independence as inspiration. The Revolution ended an era of monarchy and aristocracy and ushered in one of republicanism and egalitarianism. -
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Washington Presidency
George Washington, former commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the Revolution, is unanimously elected the first president of the U.S. His eight-year administration, cut short by his decision to retire early that set precedent for every president until FDR, saw a divided Cabinet (Hamilton, Jefferson, Knox, and Randolph), a potential financial plan by Hamilton, and numerous contentious foreign affairs decisions. -
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French Revolution
Revolutionaries in France violently rise up against the monarchy and aristocracy. While Americans support democracy, many question the brutality of the uprising. Furthermore, the revolutionaries felt entitled to American support, even though the treaty established between the two nations following the Battle of Saratoga was with the monarchy. In later debates, Federalists were condemned as Anglophiles, while Democratic-Republicans in support of the French Revolution were seen as Francophiles. -
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"Federalist Era"
The era in the 1790s in which the Federalist party dominated Congress and then the presidency under John Adams (1797-1801). It saw the Federalists establish the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts and make efforts to quiet Democratic-Republican resistance. They strengthened the federal government until the "Revolution of 1800," in which Democratic-Republicans took both houses of Congress and the presidency, ending the era with a peaceful transfer of power that proved the Constitution. -
Indian Intercourse Act
Placed the national gov't in charge of legal actions regarding Amerindians, such as purchasing land, regulating trade, and travel. This act was largely ignored by western traders and settlers. -
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American Identity Developed
The U.S. started to become distinctively different from European nations through its literature, lack of aristocracy, and art. Newspapers expanded, Charles Wilson Peale opened the first art gallery, Pierr-Charles L'Enfant designed Washington D.C., and Gilbert Stuart painted the nation's leaders. As for movement, Daniel Boone crossed the Appalachian Mountains and the cruel interregional slave trade grew just as the Slave Trade was abolished in 1808. -
The Constitution
Included:
-The 3/5 Compromise (Article I)
-A bicameral legislature (Article I)
-The Commercial Compromise (Article I)
-An executive branch (Article II)
-The Electoral College (Article II)
-A judicial branch (Article III)
-Separation of Powers & Checks and Balances (Articles I-III)
-Policies regarding the relationship between states (Article IV)
-An amendment process eventually leading to 27 amendments (Article V)
-National supremacy (Article VI)
-A process for ratification (Article VII) -
Bill of Rights
The Bill of Rights, the first 10 amendments, meant to protect individual rights, is passed. It was a compromise between Federalists and Anti-Federalists, the former of which believed a BoR unnecessary for U.S. government but necessary to win ratification of the Constitution through the support of Anti-Federalists. -
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New States (VT, KY, TN)
1791 - Vermont joins the Union as the 14th state
1792 - Kentucky joins the Union as the 15th state
1796 - Tennessee joins the Union as the 16th state -
The Cotton Gin is Invented
The cotton gin is invented, creating a need for low-cost labor and damaging talks of ending slavery in the U.S. Though Congress banned the importation of slaves and some slave owners and northern states freed slaves, slavery became a topic of division, not unity. Congress tabled the discussion of slavery at the Constitutional Convention until at least 1808. The founders sacrificed the pursuit of some further liberty and equality in order to ensure the unity and survival of the young nation. -
Proclamation of Neutrality
Washington declared neutrality in European affairs. This sentiment was later reflected in his Farewell Address. However, this decision to keep the weak U.S. military out of European conflict led to public anger. Jefferson, a supporter of France, resigned from the cabinet. "Citizen" Edmond Genet, a French minister, was recalled after he broke diplomatic rules and appealed to the U.S. people to support the French Revolution. -
Whiskey Rebellion
15,000 state militia troops authorized by Washington ended with a show of force an uprising by PA farmers resisting Hamilton's whiskey tax. A division was drawn in the U.S. over this: was it the government's successful sequel to Shays's rebellion or unwarranted and dangerous use of force? Westerners resented the handling of the rebellion; its chief critic Thomas Jefferson gained popularity. -
Battle of Fallen Timbers
The Northwest Confederacy was an Amerindian alliance in opposition to westward expansion. It was sometimes supported unofficially by the British. General Anthony Wayne defeated it in northeast OH, leading to the Treaty of Greenville, which stopped the conflict and gained land in the Ohio Territory for the U.S. -
Jay Treaty
Chief Justice John Jay negotiated a treaty that caused Britain to abandon its western posts in NA but would not prevent it from continuing to seize American ships and impress American seamen into its navy. While this maintained neutrality, it was extremely unpopular and seen by Democratic-Republicans as a Federalist action choosing Britain over France. -
Pinckney Treaty
U.S. minister to Spain Charles Pinckney negotiated a treaty that opened the lower MI River and New Orleans to U.S. trade, granted a right of deposit to American farmers in the west, and established the contested Florida border at the 31st parallel, which the U.S. favored. -
Public Land Act
An act that set procedures for dividing and selling federal lands at moderate prices. -
Washington's Farewell Address
- No involvement in European affairs
- No "permanent alliances" internationally
- No political parties (the two-party system was already on its way to a major role in the government)
- No sectionalism (this only grew stronger)
-
XYZ Affair
Adams sent diplomats to France in an attempt to negotiate the end of the seizure of American merchant ships by the French navy and privateers. Unrevealed French ministers (X, Y, and Z) requested bribes as a basis for negotiations. Upon the report of this, Americans wanted war. Hamilton supported the prospect of war with France, believing it would win the U.S. new land in NA. Avoiding sending his weak U.S. military into war, Adams sent new ministers to France. -
Alien & Sedition Acts
Highly unpopular Federalist Era acts meant to limit the power of Dem-Reps. Naturalization Act - increased the citizenship wait from five to fourteen years, knowing immigrants typically voted for Dem-Reps Alien Acts - allowed the president to expel "dangerous" aliens and detain enemy aliens during war Sedition Act - made libel against the new government illegal under punishment of fines or imprisonment. This conflicted with the First Amendment and the media's role as a watchdog over the gov't. -
Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
Resolutions passed by the legislatures of KY and VA asserting that, since the federal government and the states have a compact, the states can nullify acts they believe to be in violation of the compact. These attempted to thwart the Alein and Sedition Acts on the state level. Though the acts were eventually ended by Dem-Reps after the "Revolution of 1800," the concept of nullification would become a major debate in the coming decades. -
Election of 1800
Federalist John Adams loses to Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson in a landmark political election. -
The Federalist Party Disappears
The Federalist Party, which supported a stronger national government disappeared around 1820, though its legacy and ideology continued to be influential afterward.