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1501
Estate
A rigid and closed social group defined by birth within the Old Regime society. Estates were divided mainly into nobility, clergy, and the Third Estate, with a strict hierarchy and little social mobility, limiting the rights of the lower classes. -
1501
Nobility
The privileged estate of Old Regime society. Most members inherited titles and privileges, controlled vast lands, held government or military positions, and were exempt from certain taxes, enjoying significant legal and social advantages over the rest of the population. -
1501
Bourgeoisie
A social group within the Third Estate that included merchants, artisans, professionals, and middle-class individuals. The bourgeoisie played a key role in economic development and the French Revolution, demanding more political representation and rights. -
1501
Guilds
Associations of artisans and merchants organized by trade in medieval cities and the Old Regime. Guilds regulated product quality, prices, and worker training, protecting members but also limiting competition and innovation. -
1501
Third Estate
The estate encompassing everyone not part of the nobility or clergy, representing the majority of the population. It included peasants, bourgeoisie, and urban workers, who lacked privileges and bore the tax burden supporting the state and privileged estates. -
1501
Ancient Demographic Cycle
A population model typical of the Old Regime, marked by high birth and death rates leading to slow and fluctuating population growth. This cycle was strongly affected by wars, famines, and epidemics, lasting until the demographic transition of the 19th century. -
1501
Seigneurial System
A feudal organization where the lord had rights over land and its inhabitants. Peasants, or serfs, worked for the lord in exchange for protection but faced limited freedoms and owed tributes, reinforcing hierarchical power during the Middle Ages and the Old Regime. -
1501
Clergy
A privileged estate in the Old Regime, dedicated to religious and educational activities. The clergy owned significant wealth and lands, were exempt from taxes, and had direct influence in political and social matters due to the close relationship between religion and the state. -
Period: 1501 to
Ancien Régime
Political, social, and economic system predominant in Europe until the 18th century, characterized by absolute monarchy, an estate-based society, and an agrarian economy dominated by the privileges of the nobility and clergy over the Third Estate. It was progressively dismantled by liberal revolutions -
Thomas Hobbes
English philosopher and political theorist who laid the foundations of modern political science. In Leviathan (1651), Hobbes argued that human beings are naturally selfish and require a strong central authority to maintain order, supporting absolute monarchy as a solution to social chaos. -
John Locke
English philosopher and Enlightenment thinker, known as the "Father of Liberalism." Locke argued for natural rights (life, liberty, and property) and the idea that governments should be based on a social contract, where rulers derive their authority from the consent of the governed. His ideas deeply influenced liberal revolutions and the U.S. Declaration of Independence. -
Montesquieu
was a French philosopher and jurist born in 1689. He is best known for his theory of separation of powers, which greatly influenced modern political systems. His most famous work, The Spirit of the Laws, published in 1748, helped shape the structure of many democratic governments. He died in 1755. -
Voltaire
born in 1694, was a French writer and philosopher who defended freedom of speech and civil liberties. His satirical work Candide, published in 1759, is a sharp critique of organized religion and blind optimism. Voltaire remained a significant figure in the Enlightenment until his death in 1778. -
Absolutism
A political system in which the monarch held absolute power, centralizing authority without limitations from parliaments or other bodies. This regime peaked in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries, with figures like Louis XIV of France. -
Separation of Powers
A principle proposed by Montesquieu in The Spirit of the Laws (1748), advocating for the division of government into legislative, executive, and judicial branches. This idea influenced modern democracies, promoting power balance and limiting absolute authority. -
Encyclopedia
A work created by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d’Alembert in the 18th century, aiming to compile and disseminate the scientific and cultural knowledge of the time. The Encyclopedia became a symbol of the Enlightenment, promoting ideas of liberty and progress while questioning established authorities. -
Declaration of Independence of the United States
A document signed on July 4, 1776, by representatives of the Thirteen American Colonies, proclaiming their independence from Great Britain. Drafted primarily by Thomas Jefferson, it incorporated Enlightenment ideas such as liberty and self-determination, marking the start of the American Revolution and the foundation of a new democratic state. -
National Sovereignty
A political principle asserting that power resides in the people, who delegate their authority to elected representatives. Central to Enlightenment thought and late 18th-century revolutions, it rejected absolute monarchy and divine right, advocating for governments accountable to the nation’s will. -
Domestic System
An artisanal production system in Europe before the Industrial Revolution, where work was done at home or in small workshops. Families worked for a merchant intermediary, making it a precursor to the modern factory system. -
Enlightened Despotism
An 18th-century government system where monarchs adopted Enlightenment ideas, promoting reforms in education, administration, and the economy while retaining absolute power. Monarchs like Frederick II of Prussia and Charles III of Spain sought the people's welfare through centralized control. -
Constitution
A set of fundamental laws organizing and regulating the state's functioning and citizens' rights and duties. The first constitutions, like the U.S. Constitution (1787) and the French Constitution (1791), emerged in the 18th century and became the basis for modern states after liberal revolutions, establishing the separation of powers and limiting absolute authority. -
Census Suffrage
An electoral system of the modern age and the 19th century where only citizens with a certain amount of wealth or those paying taxes could vote. This system limited political participation to the upper classes, excluding most of the population, and was criticized by liberal and democratic movements demanding universal suffrage. -
Constitutional Monarchy
A system of government where the monarch’s power is limited by a constitution or fundamental laws, establishing a separation of powers and restricting absolute authority. It emerged in the 18th century with the Glorious Revolution in England and expanded in the 19th century, driven by liberal ideas advocating for a balance between monarchical power and citizen-controlled government. -
Period: to
Enlightenment
An 18th-century intellectual movement that promoted reason, science, and education to improve society. Enlightenment philosophers advocated for human rights, the separation of powers, and a knowledge-based society, influencing revolutions like the French and American. -
Period: to
Liberalism
Political and economic ideology that emerged in the late 17th and 18th centuries, emphasizing individual freedoms, equality before the law, and limited government. It advocates for free markets, private property, and the rule of law as central principles. Liberalism became a driving force behind the Enlightenment and the revolutions of the late 18th century, seeking to dismantle feudal structures and promote constitutional governance. -
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Enlightenment philosopher who emphasized equality and the collective good. In The Social Contract (1762), he proposed that legitimate government is based on the general will of the people, laying intellectual groundwork for modern democracy and the French Revolution. -
Adam Smith
Scottish economist and philosopher, often called the "Father of Capitalism." In The Wealth of Nations (1776), Smith outlined the principles of free-market economics and the "invisible hand," arguing for minimal government interference in the economy to maximize efficiency and prosperity. -
George Washington
American revolutionary leader and the first President of the United States (1789–1797). Washington played a pivotal role in the American fight for independence and established important precedents for democratic governance in the newly founded republic. -
Thomas Jefferson
Third President of the United States (1801–1809) and principal author of the U.S. Declaration of Independence. Jefferson’s vision of individual liberty and his role in the Louisiana Purchase significantly shaped the U.S.’s early development. -
Olympe de Gouges
French playwright and activist for women’s rights. Her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen (1791) called for gender equality and criticized the male-dominated French Revolution. She was executed during the Reign of Terror for her revolutionary ideas. -
Social Classes
The division of society into hierarchical groups based on wealth, power, and education. Within the framework of capitalism, the primary distinction is between the bourgeoisie, who own the means of production, and the proletariat, who rely on their labor to survive. -
Labor Movement
A social movement that emerged in the 19th century in response to poor working conditions during the Industrial Revolution. Workers fought for better wages, shorter work hours, and improved working conditions. -
Economic Liberalism
A doctrine advocating for free markets and minimal state intervention in the economy. Promoted by thinkers like Adam Smith, this economic system emphasizes competition and private property as the driving forces of growth. -
Transoceanic Migrations
Population movements across oceans, especially to the Americas, motivated by the pursuit of better living conditions, work, and economic opportunities. These migrations were common during the Industrial Revolution and into the 20th century. -
Rural Exodus
The massive movement of populations from rural areas to cities, particularly during the Industrial Revolution. This phenomenon was driven by the search for jobs in urban industries and the transformation of agriculture. -
A.I.T. (International Workingmen’s Association)
An international organization founded in 1864 to unite workers from different countries in the struggle for labor rights and against capitalist exploitation. It was one of the first examples of global worker solidarity. -
May 1st
The date commemorating International Workers’ Day, rooted in the labor struggles of the 19th century, particularly the demonstrations for the eight-hour workday. May 1st became a day to advocate for labor rights. -
Suffragism
A social and political movement that fought for women’s right to vote. Emerging in the 19th and early 20th centuries, it advocated for the political and participatory equality of women in public life. -
Period: to
First Industrial Revolution
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Louis XVI
King of France from 1774 to 1792, whose inability to address France’s economic crisis and social discontent led to the French Revolution. Tried for treason, he was executed in 1793, marking the end of the monarchy and the establishment of the First French Republic. -
Marie Antoinette
Queen of France and wife of Louis XVI, criticized for her lavish lifestyle during a period of economic hardship in France. She became a symbol of royal excess and was executed during the French Revolution in 1793. -
Robespierre
French lawyer and revolutionary leader who became one of the most influential figures during the French Revolution’s Reign of Terror. A key member of the Jacobins, Robespierre promoted radical reforms but was ultimately executed in 1794, ending the Reign of Terror. -
Mary Wollstonecraft
English philosopher and early advocate for women’s rights. In A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), Wollstonecraft argued for women’s access to education and equality in society, laying the foundation for modern feminist movements. -
King George III introduced new tax laws that the American colonies rejected, leading to boycotts of British products.
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Napoleon Bonaparte
French military leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and became Emperor of France (1804–1815). Napoleon implemented reforms such as the Napoleonic Code and expanded his empire across Europe, though he was ultimately defeated at Waterloo and exiled. -
The Boston Tea Party occurred in protest against the Tea Acts.
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Representatives from the American colonies gathered to express grievances against British rule.
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The Declaration of Independence was signed, marking the birth of the United States.
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The Treaty of Versailles ended the War of Independence, with Britain recognizing U.S. sovereignty.
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The U.S. Constitution was enacted, formalizing national governance and separation of powers.
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French revolution
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George Washington became the first President of the United States. The French Revolution began with the formation of the National Assembly.
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The French National Assembly abolished feudal rights and approved the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.
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France’s first Constitution established a constitutional monarchy and codified basic rights.
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The French monarchy was abolished, and the First Republic was declared.
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Period: to
The French Convention, transitioning from the Girondin to Jacobin phases, implemented revolutionary policies, including the Reign of Terror.
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King Louis XVI was executed, initiating the Reign of Terror.
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The fall and execution of Robespierre ended the Reign of Terror.
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Period: to
The Constitution of Year III established the Directory as France's governing body, which faced internal conspiracies and foreign wars.
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Napoleon Bonaparte's coup d'état on November 9 (18 Brumaire) brought the Consulate to power.
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Napoleon introduced the Civil Code and crowned himself Emperor.
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Period: to
The Congress of Vienna reorganized European boundaries and restored monarchies after Napoleon’s defeat.
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First liberal revolution
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Revolutions occurred in Spain, Italy, and Greece, with Greece gaining independence by 1829.
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Second liberal revolution
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France saw a shift to a constitutional monarchy under Louis-Philippe. Belgium achieved independence, and Poland's uprising against Russia was suppressed.
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The “Springtime of Nations” revolutions swept Europe, leading to the establishment of the French Second Republic.
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Period: to
Italy underwent unification under Victor Emmanuel II, Count Cavour, and Giuseppe Garibaldi, culminating in the creation of a unified Italy.
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Period: to
Germany, under Otto von Bismarck, unified through three wars, ending with Wilhelm I's proclamation as Emperor of the Second Reich.
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Period: to
Second Industrial Revolution