An Overview of Scientific and Technological Innovations from 1648-1945 and Their Effects

Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica by Isaac Newton (3rd Edition)

Jan 1, 1726

This is an excerpt from Newton's Principia which was originally published in 1687. The book, itself, presents a grand synthesis of information from the Scientific Revolution (1543-1687) which includes Newton's laws of motion and Kepler's laws of planetary motion. In the third edition, Newton, arguably the most influential scientist during and after the Revolution, listed these four principles in order to show that scientific methods could be applied even to nonscientific topics.

The Social Contract Book 1 Chapter 1 by Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Jan 1, 1762

This is the opening section of Rousseau's The Social Contract which was published in 1762. Rousseau was one of the greatest thinkers of the Enlightenment (1650s-1780s), a period in which many intellectuals used scientific reasoning to challenge established social "facts." This treatise is his most influential work as he argues that civil liberties are the natural rights of all human beings and that social contracts between people and their governments are crucial in guaranteeing such liberties.

The Opening of the Stockton and Darlington Railway (painting by John Dobbin)

Sep 27, 1825

This painting depicts the opening in 1825 of the S&DR which was the world's first public railway to use steam locomotives. George Stephenson was commissioned during the Industrial Revolution (1760-1840) to build this railway so as to help transport coal more efficiently. This innovation spurred greater railway development which, in turn, proved to be crucial because railroads reduced shipping costs and increased production and consumption, consequently advancing the movement as a whole.

1880 Map of Africa (by Eugène Andriveau-Goujon)

Jan 1, 1880

This map shows the launch of the partitioning of Africa by European powers during the period of New Imperialism (1880-1914). Imperialism motivated actors such as Great Britain and France to make territorial claims for political and social reasons in Asia and, especially, Africa. In 1885 during the Berlin Conference Africa's borders were redrawn so as to establish which nation was in charge of which newly-divided colony, thus adding a new dimension to European rivalry preceding World War I.

The Creation of Artificial Synthesis of Ammonia by Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch

Jan 1, 1909

This photo shows the effects of fertilizer on crops. During the Second Industrial Revolution, producing food became an issue because of the great growth in world population. In 1909 German scientists Haber and Bosch developed a way to synthesize ammonia from nitrogen in air, making it possible to produce large amounts of fertilizer. The process, which could also be used in making explosives, revolutionized agriculture and became one of the most important inventions of the 20th century.

Die schlafenden von Fort Vaux (Gas-Tote) [The Sleepers of Fort Vaux (Gas Deaths)] by Otto Dix

Jan 1, 1924

This print by Dix, a German expressionist, depicts a hill covered with dead soldiers who were killed by poison gas during WWI. Artists like Dix, who was an artillery gunner during the war, were of age prior to WWII and deeply disillusioned by WWI and society after the war. Although just one of the prints published in his War series, this piece, in particular, is notable because it evokes the brutal experiences of numerous soldiers by graphically portraying their failed attempts at survival.