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Adam Smith Writes "The Wealth of Nations
Adam Smith Writes "The Wealth of Nations" Adam Smith's monumental writing in economics is perhaps the most important work in the 18th century. Smith lays the basis of many modern economic concepts including specialization, free trade, and the invisible hand. Smith is still cited for his influential work, and his work was later expanded upon by economists such as David Ricardo. -
The United States of America Gains Independence
The United States of America Gains Independence On this date, the United States of America gains its independence. George Washington is the country's first President and the event is marked by the Declaration of Independence, which famously states: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed [...] with Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. -
Thomas Malthus Publishes his Essay on Population
Thomas Malthus' Essay on PopulationMalthus' Essay on Population was significant for its contribution of the ideas of geometric population growth and arithmetic food growth. These ideas concluded that because the population has the ability to grow much faster than food does, there will be significant repurcussions for the future, including increased poverty, war, and famine. -
Beginning of Spanish Constitution of 1812
Spanish Constitution of 1812The Spanish Constitution, initiatied by Cádiz Cortes, was important for its contribution of several important rights to the people of Spain, including national sovereignty. Throughout the following years, the Constitution was removed (1814, 1823), and then re-enacted (1820, 1836). -
First Treaty of Paris
Treaty of Paris 1814The First Treaty of Paris was a treaty that proposed peace between France and Great Britain. The secondary point of the treaty was the return of land to France. Having just gone through a revolution and many wars, France asked for the land that it owned on January 1, 1792 to be returned. The treaty had many other smaller points, such as certain security agreements and even agreements about land in North America. -
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Congress of Vienna
The Congress of ViennaThe Congress of Vienna was a meeting between many of Europe's important leaders, including representatives from Austria, Bavaria, Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain, Russia, and Prussia. The result of the congress included several nations such as Great Britain retaining land and other countries such as Prussia receiving new land. The meeting came about because of the defeat of Napoleon, the French Emperor. -
German Confederation of 1815
The German ConfederationThe German Confederation of 1815 was the result of the actions of the Congress of Vienna. Previously, Germany had over 300 states, however after the conclusion of the congress, Germany was divided into 38 states, governed by 5 kingdoms (Austria, Bavaria, Prussia, Saxony, and Württemberg. The leader of this confederation was initially Prince Clemens von Metternich, whose main contribution was putting an end to revolutionar thought or action. -
Napoleon Defeated at Waterloo
The Battle of WaterlooAfter many years of being considered one of France's greatest military leaders, Napoleon is finally defeated by the Duke of Wellington, in a battle occurring at Waterloo, Belgium. Despite initially having a 4,000 person advantage in army size, Napoleon was unsuccessful because of an error in judgment (waiting for the ground to dry before attacking), which gave the opposition time to gain reinforcements. Ultimately, the Battle of Waterloo ended with almost 50,000 casualties. -
David Ricardo publishes "The Principles of Political Economy"
"The Principles of Political Economy" In this work, Ricardo examines how population growth can effect wages (through suppy and demand theory), as well as how money is distributed. Another topic in this book is the inverse relationship between profit and wages. In addition to this work, David Ricardo is also remembered for his theory of comparative advantage, which expands upon Adam Smith's theory of absolute advantage. -
Peterloo Massacre
Peterloo MassacreThe Peterloo Massacre was an event taking place in current day St. Peters Square, in Manchester. It was a political statement by 60,000 citizens who were hoping for a democratic nation, which would ultimately lower poverty as well. However, since there were many armed individuals at least a few hundred infantry, the protest turned violent. While the death toll was estimated to be 18, there were also hundreds of people that suffered injuries as a result of the event. -
Troppau Protocol Meeting
Troppau Protocol The Troppau Protocol was the result of a meeting between many of Europe's most powerful nations. Its purpose was to arrange how the revolution of Naples was suppressed. The protocol would later be signed the same year on November 19. -
Battle of Navarino
Battle of Navarino The Battle of Navarino took place in south Greece, and was fought between the team of Britain, France, and Russia, against a team of Armada and Turkey. The end result of the battle was the defeat of the Ottoman's. There was a huge discrepancy in the number of casualties: 181 between Britain, France, and Russia, and over 1000 (possibly over 3000) casualties on the other side. -
British Reform Act
British Reform Act This British Reform Act was important for its contribution to voting rights and equality. Though this was only the first of three reform acts, this one was important because it any man with a value of 10 Pounds was now allowed to vote, making one-fifth of the population eligible to vote. Similar to what happened in the French Revolution, this was a case of increased equality among the classes. -
Slavery Abolition Act
The Anti-Slavery Campaign in Britain The Slavery Abolition Act of 1833 was the result of many years of anti-slavery rallying that occurred in Britain. The act contained a few main points, most notably that anyone under the age of 6 could not be a slave. Furthermore, the government paid a large compensation to slave-owners. -
Factory Act of 1833
Factory Act of 1833 The Factory Act of 1833 was an act that aimed to improve labour laws by reducing the number of hours that a child could legally work. The main change was that anyone under 18 could no longer work between 8:30 PM and 5:30 AM. -
New Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834
New Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834 This amendment act, which passed to law very easily, was made in order to create a central organization separate from Parliament. This new organization had many powers including the responsibility to make regulations and supervise work. This act had a strong emphasis on removing outdoor relief (funds from outside work in order to support low-income families). -
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Opium Wars
The Opium Wars The Opium Wars were the result of excessive trading of opium from Britain to China, a country with very restrictive trade laws. Governments in China noticed problems occurring because of excessive opium use and cut off trade with Britain. In September of 1839, a British individual fired shots. Soon after, there was extensive conflict between the nations. -
Pierre-Joseph Proudhon Writes "What is Property?"
What is Property? Pierre-Joseph Proudhon answers the question "What is property" by using one word: theft In his writing, Proudhon made statements that even Karl Marx sometimes disagreed with. Although some view Proudhon as an anarchist, his writing was quite influential because it - like many of the writings of his contemporaries - caused society to challenge everything around them. -
Treaty of Nanking
Treaty of Nanking The Treaty of Nanking was created as a peace-keeping treaty between Great Britain and China. The treaty's impact was the end of the Opium Wars. The treaty determined certain cities in China, in which the British were allowed to live in for the purpose of trade only. -
Mines Act of 1842
Mines Act of 1842 The Mines Act of 1842 was one of many Acts designed with the purpose of improving labour conditions (such as the Factory Act of 1833). The act prevented females from working underground, and said that only males over age 10 could do so (although between ages 10-18, the males could apprentice). -
Friedrich Engels writes "The Condition of the Working Class in England"
Friedrich Engel Writes "The Condition of the Working Class in England"Engels, who later helped to write "The Communist Manifesto", wrote of many socialist ideals in "The Condition of the Working Class in England". Engels explained what will happen if the conditions of England in the 1840's continued. -
Charlotte Bronte Publishes Jane Eyre
Charlotte Bronte Publishes Jane Eyre One of Charlotte Bronte's defining works, Jane Eyre, was published in 1847 to immediate critical praise. The work made some defining statements about the social conditions of 1847. This should come as no surprise since revolutions erupted everywhere in the following year. -
Public Health Act of 1848
Public Health Act of 1848 Following on the Factory Act of 1833 and the Mines Act of 1842, the Public Health Act of 1848 improved working conditions by making cleanlier environments. The Government also put itself in a position of responsibility by establishing the General Board of Health. -
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels write "The Communist Manifesto"
The Communist ManifestoThe Communist Manifesto is considered to be one of the most important political and economic literary works for its contribution to modern-day politics. Marx and Engels claim that over time, societies will naturally shift from their capitalistic form, to a socialist one that will ultimately become, communism. The book looks closely at the two classes of bourgeois and proletariat. One of the main focuses in the book is on the idea of a classless society, in which everyone is equal. -
Revolution in Paris, 1848
Revolution in Paris, 1848 On this day, in Paris, workers rose up against authority. There were around 1,500 workers that were killed in just four days, along with 12,000 workers that were arrested. This was not the first instance of revolution at the time, however. Earlier in the year, during February, workers in the middle class overcame the oppression of their King, in order for a Republic to reign. -
Hungary Receives Independence
Hungary's War of Independence After fighting for independece for over half a year, Hungary finally became its own nation, separate from Austria. There were several battles between the nations, including the Battle of Kápolna (February 27), the Battle of Hatvan (April 2), and the Battle of Isaszeg (April 6). -
Austrians Attack Venice
Austrians Attack Venice The Austrian's attack upon Italian districts was significant for its use of air bombs, the first of their kind. The bombs were done by balloons that were not occupied by anyone. There is a discrepancy in the number of bombs dropped, but the fact remains that it was an unprecented event. The surrender of Venice later was not just because of the air bombings, as land troops did well. -
Fugitive Slave Act
Fugitive Slave Act In the United States in 1850, the Fugitive Slave Act made slave trading illegal in the District of Columbia while also giving up some slave rights in Texas. The act later was considered to be instrumental in the ending of slavery in the United States. It also helped to spur the awareness and growth of the underground railroad. -
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Crimean War
The Crimean WarThe Crimean War was a monumental historic war between the powers of Britain, France, Turkey, and Piedmont-Sardinia against Russia. It is interesting to note that this event had Britain and France working side by side, despite a long history of unpleasantness between the countries. In the war, Austria was wanted by both sides, however, the country opted to stay out of it, which is sometimes seen as a cause for World War I. The result of this war was the Treaty of Paris in 1856. -
Paris Peace Congress, 1856
Paris Peace Congress The Paris Peace Congress took place over the course of a month and led to the signing of the Treaty of Paris. The Treaty of Paris (signed on the 30th of March) forced Russia to give up south Bessarabia. The Peace Congress came about as a result of the ending of the Crimean War. -
Indian Mutiny of 1857
Indian Mutiny of 1857 The Indian Mutiny of 1857 was a movement for independence in India. It was defeated on June 20, the following year. One of the biggest impacts was the ending of the Mughal Empire. Moreover, Britain now has full control over India through the British Raj. -
Government of India Act
Government of India Act With the Government of India Act, the British East India Company ceased operation, giving its net worth to Britain. The main cause for this act was the Mutiny of India one year prior. Although the bill became official on August 2 1858, it was passed on February 18 of the same year. -
Charles Darwin Publishes "The Origin of Species"
"The Origin of Species" Darwin's "The Origin of Species" is seen as the defining work in evolutionary theory. Darwin uses evidence to support his theory that men are the process of millions of years of evolution. In this work, Darwin coined the term "natural selection", which describes how the best or strongest species will survive and continue to evolve. -
Kingdom of Italy Established
Kingdom of Italy Established On this date, Italy's first Parliament came together. This was the result of a movement for independence in Italy which had been occurring for at least a decade. In 1849, Italy's Revolution was stopped by Austria, however Austria was defeated in 1859 by the combined efforts of France and Sardinia, allowing Italy to regain control and motion for independence. -
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American Civil War
American Civil War After Abraham Lincoln's won Presidency in 1860, South Carolina left the Union, and was followed by 6 more states by February 1, 1861. On March 4, Lincoln said that this secession was not valid. On April 12, shots were fired in Charleston, SC. By 1865, Confederate's began to surrender, with the last forces (naval) surrendering in November. -
Formation of First International Workingmen's Association
Formation of First International Workingmen's Association On September 28, 1864, the first committee was elected for the International Workingmen's Association. The Association was significant not only because it was focused on worker rights, but also because it had a diverse background, featuring members from Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, and others. -
Peace of Prague of 1866
Peace of Prague 1866 The Peace Treaty of Prague came into effect in order to stop the Austro-Prussian war of 1866. Since Prussia was a kingdom of Germany, the treaty ensured that Austria would not interfere with German projects. Furthermore, the treaty made Prussia retract their troops, and said that southern German states could not form a union. -
Second Reform Act Passed in Britain
Second Reform Act Passed in Britain After the first Reform Act, about 1/5th of the population could now vote, however the second act gave that right to another million people. Writers like John Ruskin described the impact of giving people in lower classes the right to vote. While some people were for equality, others felt as if more voters destroys the power of the upper class. -
Meiji Restoration
Meiji Restoration The Meiji Restoration was the time in which the reign of Tokugawa ended and the return of the Meiji empire returned. Factors that led to overthrowing the Tokugawa included a changing social hierarchy and intellectual changes within the government. -
John Stuart Mill Publishes "The Subjection of Women"
The Subjection of Women was written in order to promote equity between men and women. Mill discussed that even though men have ruled for ages, that does not mean it is necessarily the correct or best way for a country to be run. Despite his intentions, Mill did contradict himself somewhat, by saying that a women's job that supports the family should not be outside the home; however, his writing was still very influential in the development of women's rights. -
Napoleon III Declares War on Prussia
Napoleon III Declares War on Prussia Napoleon III, nephew of Napoleon I, began the start of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. The beginning of the war was generally attributed to the contributions of Otto von Bismarck (Prime Minister of Prussia that later became Chancellor), as well as Napoleon III. In Germany, there was still anger towards France because of the wars involving Napoleon I. -
Paris Commune
Paris Commune The Paris Commune has its roots in the in 1870, where the Government was pressured by workers to establish a Commune. On March 26 (1871), the members of the Commune are elected. The commune orders the burning of the guillotine on April 6. 10 days later, all obligations are put off for 3 years. -
Treaty of Frankfurt
Treaty of Frankfurt The Treaty of Frankfurt solidified the end of the Second Empire of France, as the war between France and Prussia ended. The treaty resulted in a payment of 5 billion francs from France, in case of future losses. -
Assassination of Alexander II
Assassination of Alexander II After having ruled for 26 years, the Czar of Russia, Alexander II, is assassinated in St. Petersburg. His assassins later went on to form the group known as "The People's Will". Although Alexander II was initially quite helpful, he was often questioned by the end of his reign. -
Debut of Tchaikovsky's 1812 Overture
Debut of 1812 Overture Tchaikovsky's 1812 Overture was written as a hymn to the anniversary of Napoleon's defeat in 1812. The project was completed in just over a month during 1880. Despite the importance of the piece and its success, Tchaikovsky didn't enjoy the song. -
Berlin Act of 1885
Berlin Act of 1885 Increasing interest from European Nations regarding the status of Africa occurred in the late 1800's. Since conflicts were close to emerging so quickly, a European conference was held instead of waging war. After 4 months of deliberation, it was decided that free trade would be positive for Africa, however the contintent was still split up between the European powers. -
Friedrich Nietzsche Publishes "Beyond Good and Evil"
Friedrich Nietzsche Publishes "Beyond Good and Evil" In this work, Nietzsche attempts to attribute certain qualities to successful philosophers. He stresses originality and creativity within work in order to create truly compelling ideas. One of his most important ideas is the idea of "will to power" which states that individuals need to show their dominance or strength to others. -
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Dreyfus Affair
Dreyfus Affair Alfred Dreyfus, a French Captain, was accused of providing Germany with information. His Jewish background worked against him and he was exiled to Devil's Island near South America. Later, Lieutenant Colonel Georges Picquart discovered that Dreyfus was not guilty, but that Major Walsin Esterhazy was guilty. The army did not want to reopen the case because they didn't want to ruin their image. -
Auguste Rodin Finishes Monument to Balzac
Auguste Rodin Finishes Monument to Balzac After having prepared and studied for seven years, August Rodin created her monument to Balzac (French Novelist), which was met with immediate criticism. The monument was paid for by the Société des Gens de Lettres, who were also not satisfied with it. -
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Boer War
The Boer War The Boer War was a war between Britain (and its allies) and the Boer forces (South African settlers). Despite it being a war fought by Britain, it was actually Australia who provided many troops that would support Britain (an estimated 16,000). The war was being fought over the control of gold mines that the Boer's possessed. By the end of the war in 1902, Australia estimated its own causualties to be around 600 -
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Society of Harmonious Fists' Murders
The Boxer Rebellion The Society of Harmonious Fists were the leaders of a movement known as the Boxer Rebellion, which took place in China over several years. The most significant event took place in 1900, when 239 missionaries were killed for refusing to give up their religion. A total of around 32,000 people died because of this movement. -
Sigmund Freud Publishes "The Interpretation of Dreams"
Sigmund Freud Publishes "The Interpretation of Dreams" Freudian psychological theory is rooted in the idea that memories can be kept deep within the human mind and recalled at later times (not necessarily by choice). Freud was the first to suggest that an event that happened in one's past can greatly tramautize the remainder of one's life. -
Labour Party Formed
Labour Party Formed On February 26-27 of 1900, there was a meeting held in Memorial Hall in London. The result of this conference was the creation of the Labour Representation Committee. What made this committee unique was that its members were not individuals, but rather, groups/organizations. (Note that the party founded upon the conclusion of the ceremony, on the 27th) -
Lenin Publishes "What is to be Done?"
What is to be Done? In his famous work, "What is to be Done?", Lenin discusses revolutions, and even tactics regarding them. Lenin's influences are obvious, through his quoting of both Friedrich Engels and Karl Kautsky. Lenin puts a strong emphasis on the importance of leadership, communication, and nationalism. It is no surprise that nationalism is an often-cited cause for World War I, given Lenin's work. -
Formation of Women's Social and Political Union
Women's Social and Political Union The Women's Social and Political Union, formed by Christabel Pankhurst, was a group that participated actively in improving women's voting rights. They were so well known for this, that they were often called Suffragettes. Over time, the group became more and more violent, resorting to tactics like rioting, mob-behaviour, and even destruction of property. -
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Russo-Japanese War
Russo-Japanese War The Russo-Japanese War was caused by Japan's want to dominate China, and Russia feeling that shouldn't gain Port Arthur. Several key events of the war include the Battle of the Yellow Sea (August 10, 1904) and the Battle of Tsushima (May 27, 1905). -
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Max Weber Writes "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism"
The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism In this famous work, Max Weber exams how religion (particularly puritanism) has influenced the ideas of capitalism, as well as any contradictions between religion and economics. Weber goes on to say that the ideas expressed by the Protestant Reformation were influential because some of these ideas pre-dated Adam Smith's concepts (such as the division of labour). -
Albert Einstein Develops Theory of Relativity
Albert Einstein Develops Theory of Relativity Albert Einstein, though not the inventor of the theory of relativity, played a pivotal role in its development, by noticing that in a vacuum, the speed of light is the absolute top speed something can physically attain. Furthermore, from this discovery came E = mc^2. Einstein's theory was separated into two parts: Special Theory of Relativity and General Theory of Relativity. -
Russian Revolution
Russian Revolution The Russian Revolution of 1905 primarily results from the poor conditions that serfs in Russia had to deal with in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The leaders of Russia refused to improve these conditions, which caused unrest. Other contributors to the Revolution include Czar Alexander II's reforms and the nihilist thinking of serfs. Ultimately, the Revolution failed because the oppressed not united. -
Bloody Sunday
Bloody Sunday Bloody Sunday occurred in Russia during the reign of a poor government (led by Nicholas II) and during a time of war (this was during the Russo-Japanese War). In St. Petersburg, many workers were murdered or injured by the attacking Imperial forces. After the massacre, Russia suffered from rioting, as well as strikes, across the nation. -
People's Budget of 1909
People's Budget of 1909 The People's Budget of 1909 was a series of taxes that were levied onto the people of Britain by Lloyd George. In his speech on July 30th, George explains to his people that the purpose of these taxes is to perpetuate growth by urbanizing, or building, Britain. Not surprisingly, this was met to a negative reaction, as depicted by this poster. -
Chinese Revolution of 1911
Chinese Revolution of 1911 The Chinese Revolution of 1911 was led by Sun Yat-sen and was the result of the Westernization of China, as well as the Nationalization of China's railway. Nationalizing the railway was problematic because investors didn't expect a return. Yat-sen having been westernized, had three main goals: elimination of the Manchu dynasty, the creation of a democratic republic, and property equality among the people. -
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Balkan Wars
Balkan Wars The Balkan Wars, occurring just before World War I, were the result of 3 main causes, including Macedonia's indecisiveness, the Crete, and the Ottoman Empire's power. Macedonia was eventually absorbed into Greece. Ultimately, the biggest victor of the Balkan Wars was Greece, whose land mass increased by over two-thirds its previous size. -
Francis Ferdinand Assassinated
Francis Ferdinand Assassinated Francis Ferdinand, next in line to rule Austria-Hungary, was assassinated by Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo. This assassination is considered to be the most immediate trigger to World War I (though other factors had been building for years). Serbia provided Princip with the supplies he needed to accomplish his task, thus fueling the hatred between the nation of Serbia and Austria-Hungary.
