Cultura y civilización inglesas

Skara Brae

3180 BCE

Barrows or Burial Mounds

3000 BCE

Barrows or burial mounds, mostly found on the chalk uplands of south Britain. Scattered tribes from Europe. Until approx. -2600. After -3000 the chalkland people started building great circles of earth banks and ditches: henges.
For example, West Kennet Long Barrow

Henges: centres of religious, political and economic power.

2600 BCE

Stonehenge + the Beaker people

2400 BCE

Stonehenge: second phase of building. Huge bluestoneswere brought to the site from south Wales, which could only have been achieved because the political authority of the area surrounding Stonehenge was recognised over a very large area. // After -2400, the Beakers arrived in southeast Britain from Europe. They soon became leaders of British society. They brought with them a new cereal, barley, which could grow almost anywhere, and also skills to make bronze tools to replace the old stone ones.

Power shifts from henges to hillforts

1300 BCE

Up to this date, Stonehenge remained the most important centre. From now onwards, the henge civilisation seems to have been overtaken by a settled farming class. The old central control of Stonehenge and other henges was lost. Power had shifted to the Thames valley and southeast Britain. Hillforts replaced henges as the centres of local power.

Celts: Belgic tribes + iron + Druids

750 BCE

The Belgic tribes were the last to arrive. The Celts used the same kind of agriculture as the Bronze Age people but they included the use of iron technology and more advanced ploughing methods. The Celtic tribes were ruled by a warrior class, of which the Druids seemed to have been particularly important members (they knew about religion, law, history, medicine; met in sacred groves of trees, on certain hills, by rivers or river sources).

Celts

Period: 750 BCE to 40

Celts: probably came from central Europe or further east. They were technically advanced, knew how to work with iron and could make better weapons than the people who used bronze. They soon began to controll all the lowland areas of Britain, and were joined by new arrivals in one wave after another over the next seven hundred years. Did they invade or come peacefully as a result of trade?

Roman invasion (Julius Caesar)

55 BCE

Julius Caesar invaded the British Isles to subdue the tribes that had been helping rebels in Gaul, France. Casivellanus was a rebellious chieftain in the isles during this period, who led the defence against Julius Caesar but eventually surrendered.

Roman invasion and occupation

43

The Romans invaded again under Claudius' control, and a Roman army occupied Britain.

Roman presence in the British Isles

Period: 43 to 409

Boudicca

61

She was a Celtic leader who led her tribes against Romans. She nearly drove them from Britain and destroyed London, the Roman capital, before she was defeated and killed.

Celts attack Caledonia

367

First signs that the Roman control of Britain was coming to an end as the empire began to collapse. It was becoming more and more difficult for Roman legions to stop the raiders from crossing Hadrian's Wall. On the European mainland, Germanic groups, Saxons and Franks began to raid the coast of Gaul.

Romans retreat from the British Isles. Saxon Invasions. Displacement.

409

The Roman army had to return to the continent to defend it from Barbarian attacks. Without the presence of the Romans, the British Isles were vulnerable and prone to attacksand invasions. Arrival of Angles, Saxons, Jutes; Germanic tribes. These invasions brought about a cultural and physical displacement of native Britons.

St Patrick's evangelical mission

450

Patricius (St. Patrick), an upper-class Roman-Briton, started an evangelical mission of conversion to Christianity in Hibernia (today, Ireland). Thanks to St. Patrick and his followers, Ireland was largely Christian by the early sixth century.

Columba founded monastery in Iona

563

One of St. Patrick's missionaries, Columba, founded a monastery/missionary school on the island of Iona (Scottish lands). From Iona, Columba sent his missionaries to bring Christianity to the Scots. The evangelical zeal of the Irish missionaries brought them in touch with the people at large.

Pope Gregory's evangelical mission

597

Pope Gregory sent Augustine to Canterbury, in Kent. Although “success seemed rapid” at the beginning, “the skin-deep conversion of an Anglo-Saxon king and his household was shaky at best." Many of them apostatized and went back to the old ways.

Monastery on Lindisfarne was built

635

After gaining control of Northumbria in 633, the Christian King Oswald summoned his bishop Aidan (an Irish monk) to convert it permanently. Monks went to Lindisfarne and bishop Aidan built a monastery on the island of Lindisfarne

Synod of Whitby

664

Synod of Whitby: “a meeting held by the Christian Church of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria to decide whether to follow Celtic or Roman usages.” The King eventually favoured the Roman party.

Heptarchy

700

By this date, the Anglo-saxon invaders had settled and different kingdoms arose - Heptarchy: Northumbria, Wessex, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Sussex and Kent

Lindisfarne Gospels

Period: 710 to 725

Sacking of Lindisfarne

793

First wave of Viking attacks

Period: 793 to 954

Viking raid in London

842

Arrival of the "Great Heathen Army" of vikings

865

The "Great heathen army", composed of members of different Scandinavian tribes, arrived. Their aim was to occupy and control the lands that they harried by installing kings who were sympathetic to them, e.g. in Northumbria and Mercia

Battle of Edington

878

By this time, only king Alfred of Wessex/King Alfred the Great held out against the vikings. He won a decisive battle: the Battle of Edington. An army of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex under Alfred the Great defeated the Great Heathen Army led by Guthrum.

Control of London - Vikings constrained to the Danelaw

886

King Alfred managed to reestablish English control of London. Vikings were now constrained to the territory of the Danelaw

Death of King Alfred - Succeeded by Edward the Elder

899

King Alfred died. His son, Edward the Elder, succeeded to the throne and started to reassert control over the Danelaw (until 924)

Reasserting control over the Danelar

Period: 899 to 924

Edward the Elder. In 1920 the King of Scots, the Danish ruler of York and the ruler of English Northumbria submitted to his authority. In 1924 he died and was succeeded by his son AEthelstan.

Eric Bloodaxe was crowned King of York

947

Expulsion of Eric Bloodaxe and end of first wave of Viking invasions

954

Expulsion of Eric Bloodaxe as the first wave of Viking invasions came to a close. Although they had been defeated, the Vikings did not disappear from the British Isles completely. They kept control of bases in Scandinavia, Dublin and the Isle of Man.

Second wave of Viking attacks

Period: 980 to 1066

AEthelred's treaty against Viking raiders + Danegeld

991

AEthelred makes a treaty with the Duchy of Normandy to deny Viking raiders access to a base. The Danes attack Essex. AEthelred responds by enforcing a policy of tax collection to pay off the Vikings: Danegeld.

AEthelred fled to Normandy. Swein Forkbeard became king of England.

1013

Due to a series of annual attacks and major raids carried out by the King of Denmark, AEthelred had to flee to Normandy with his wife, Emma, daughter of the Duke of Normandy, and their three children. Swein Forkbeard, a Dane, became King of England.

Swine Forkbeard's death and the recallinf of AEthelred

1014

Swine Forkbeard died and the witan recalled AEthelred, who regained the throne.

AEthelred's death. Canute's invasion and reign.

1016

AEthelred died and his son Edmund Ironside was accepted as king by the English, but he died in November that same year. Canute, King of Denmark, son of Swein Forkbeard, invaded again and won the throne. His reign (1016-1035) “was marked both by political stability and economical prosperity.”

Canute's marriage to Emma

1017

Canute married Emma, AEthelred’s widow, to legitimise his monarch right and his claim to the throne.

Canute's death. Harold (illegitimate, viking) vs Harthacnut (legitimate, Emma's son)

1035

Canute died. His two sons, Harold (illegitimate son) and Harthacnut (legitimate son by Emma) quarrelled for the throne. Harold, illegitimate viking son of Canute became Regent

Harold, illegitimate viking son of Canute became King

1038

Harold's death + Harthacnut becomes King

1040

Harold, illegitimate viking son of Canute died from an illness. Harthacnut, son of Canute and Emma (AEthelred's widow, daughter of the duke of Normandy), became king.

Harthacnut's death + Edward the Confessor becomes king

1042

Harthacnut died. Godwin of Wessex, a powerful Anglo-Danish courtier, secured the throne for Emma and Ethelred’s son Edward the Confessor. Turning point in history. (AEthelred belonged to the House of Wessex, i.e. the Anglo-Saxon line. Edward was a very religious man. He had strong ties with the Normans, -bishoprics and land grants- for he had been raised there, and he had promised the throne to William, the Duke of Normandy). Edward the Confessor married Godwin’s daughter and became his puppet.

Edward the Confessor's death

Jan 5, 1066

Harold Godwinson, chosen by Witan. Attack by Harald Haardrada & Tostig

Jan 6, 1066

Harold Godwinson, Norman, chosen by the Witan. He faced an attack by Harald Haardrada, King of Norway, helped by his own brother Tostig. He defeated them at Stamford Bridge.

Battle of Hastings vs Duke William of Normandy & death of Harold Godwinson

Oct 14, 1066

Harold Godwinson faced a new threat from the south: he was attacked by William, duke of Normandy. In the Battle of Hastings, William killed Harold and his brothers.

William I of Normandy becomes king. End of the Anglo-Saxon period.

Dec 25, 1066

William I of Normandy became the first Norman king of England. William the Conqueror. These events mark the end of the Anglo-Saxon period. King William I engaged in an encroachment of local power and property. The Normans dispossessed the Anglo-Saxon nobility, which brought about a number of rebellions.

Harrying of the North

Period: 1069 to 1070

William I led the Harrying of the North, a series of pillage, destructive raids and constant attacks through which he dispossessed the Anglo-Saxon nobility and gave everything to the barons who had supported him, in order to crush down his opposition. He started to build castles every 15-16km, to demonstrate and maintain his power.

Compilation of Domesday Book

1086

William I ordered the compilation of the Domesday Book, a survey listing all the landholdings in England along with their pre-Conquest and current holders.

First Crusade

1096

In 1095 Pope Urban II in Rome summoned the Christendom, to take the cross and participate in a military campaign to win back Jerusalem for Christianity. He promised knights of Europe forgiveness of their sins in exchange. Considering that Jerusalem had been taken by the Muslims 600 years before, we may wonder: was it just a campaign against the Muslim control of Jerusalem, or was also he aiming at a rebirth and rejuvenation of Christian faith?

First Crusade

Period: 1096 to 1099

Ended with the capture of Jerusalem, recovered from the Muslims after a long siege.

Henry I's reign

Period: 1100 to 1135

Main conflict: lay investiture

Conflict between Henry I & Anselm

Period: 1102 to 1107

After William's death, Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, refused to do homage to his successor, Henry I. Meanwhile, Henry I had appointed several new bishops who had no spiritual authority without the blessing of the archbishop. Conflict over lay investiture. Who should appoint/anoint bishops and prelates? Finally the king agreed that only the Church could create bishops, but in return the Church agreed that bishops would pay homage to the king for the lands owned by their bishoprics.

Second Crusade

Period: 1147 to 1149

Although Jerusalem was recovered in 1099, other campaigns were carried out to take back the rest of the territories occupied by the Muslims. The Crusades followed religious and geopolitical imperatives. From the 11th to the 13th century, wars were fought for the possession of the Holy Land/surroundings of Jerusalem, which were highly valued because of the advantages they implied for trade: control of these lands meant direct access to the far East, trade in spices. Outremer. Colonisation sample.

Henry II's reign

Period: 1154 to 1189

Conflict with Thomas Becket

Becket appointed Archbishop of Canterbury + Conflict over Benefit of Clergy

1162

Henry II's friend Thomas Becket was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury, Henry hoped that Becket would help him bring the Church more under his control. At first he refuses, then he gave in, and then he changed his mind again and fled to France. Conflict over the benefit of clergy.

Becket's death and canonisation

1170

Becket returned to France determined to resist the king. Henry II is said to have ordered the murder of Becket. The Church reacted and he was canonised.

Third Crusade

Period: 1187 to 1189

Richard Lionheart vs Saladin

Richard Lionheart's reign

Period: 1189 to 1199

John Lackland's reign

Period: 1199 to 1216

John Lackland, Richard Lionheart’s brother and Henry II’s son, became king. He “had already made himself unpopular with the three most important groups of people, the nobles, the merchants and the Church”. He was greedy and abused of his power terribly in several ways.

Fourth Crusade

Period: 1202 to 1204

End of the Angevin Empire??????

1204

King John the Lackland lost the lands in Normandy, France, which brought about the end of the Angevin Empire. He had failed his duty as a feudal lord and as duke of Normandy, since he had taken his barons’ money but had not been able to protect their land.

John Lackland vs the Pope on the appointment of the Archbishop of Canterbury (closed churches)

1209

King John quarreled with the Pope over the appointment of the Archbishop of Canterbury. “The Pope called on the king of France to invade England, and closed every church in the country.” (McDowall: 28). Christians were very worried about going to hell, to the extent that in 1214 John had to accept the pope’s candidate for archbishop.

Magna Carta

1215

Magna Carta, “the Great Charter”, was a charter of rights imposed on King John the Lackland by the barons. It was the first to underpin civil liberties in a rule of law. Written in Latin, it represented a contract between the king and “the community of the realm” (=just the barons).

Henry III's reign

Period: 1216 to 1272

King John Lackland died. His son, Henry III, who was 9 years old, was crowned king. As he was only a child, for the first 16 years of his reign he was tied to the control of powerful nobles and Magna Carta.

Proto-Parliament

1254

Proto Parliament: “When in 1253 Henry returned to campaign in France, his brother, Richard of Cornwall, found he could not raise the requisite money, and summoned a ‘parlement’, a discussion, composed not just of barons and bishops but, for the first time, of shire representatives. This proto-parliament first met at Easter 1254.”

Provisions of Oxford

1258

They brought about a revision of Magna Carta, and it was decided that ‘foreigners’ should be “expelled from all affairs of state, together with papal emissaries and overseas bankers.” “The provisions went beyond a charter of civil liberties to address the structure of monarchical government. A council of fifteen under Simon de Montfort was put above the king’s council of twenty-four, accountable to a parliament that would meet three times a year whether or not summoned by the monarch.”

De Montfort summoned a new parliament: taxes + matters of public concern

1264

de Montfort summoned a new parliament including two knights from each shire and two burgesses ‘elected’ from each city. It is considered as the ‘first’ English parliament, for its purpose was to discuss not only taxes, but also any other matter of public concern. However, this new parliament did not meet until a year later, and dissolved itself within a month.

Edward I's reign

Period: 1272 to 1307

After Henry died in 1272, his son Edward I took the throne. He was “the first to create a ‘representative institution’ which could provide the money he needed. This institution became the House of Commons [...] [which] contained a mixture of ‘gentry’ (knights and other wealthy free men from the shires) and merchants from the towns.”

Edward I summons commoners to act as representatives in parliament

1275

In 1275 Edward I commanded shires and towns/boroughs to send two “commoners” to act as representatives of their local community in his parliament. They were unwilling, because they did not want the king to take their money, but at the same time they did not dare risk his anger.

Model Parliament

1295

Model parliament in the reign of Edward I. Barons, bishops, representatives of the shires and burgesses were summoned.

Edward II's reign

Period: 1307 to 1327

French crown's attempto to interfere with English commerce (Gascony & Burgundy)

1324

The king of France attempted to interfere with England’s trade: he took over part of Gascony, and hindered the trade of the regional wine for England’s corn and woollen cloth, which used to be very profitable for the English Crown. Soon after, he tried to force the duke of Burgundy to accept his authority.

Edward III's reign

Period: 1327 to 1377

England began a long struggle with the French Crown. At a time in which the French king was determined to expand his authority and control all his nobles, the duke of Burgundy and the English king remained rebellious and had refused to recognise the overlordship of the French king.

Edward III claimed the right to the French throne

1328

When the Capet line came to an end with Charles IV, Edward III declared war on France: through his mother, he claimed the right to the French crown.

Commons are given a permanent role in Parliament, yet the Lords continued to dominate politically.

1337

The Hundred Years War

Period: 1337 to 1453

Battle of Crécy

1346

Battle of Crécy: English longbowmen soundly defeated French cavalry near the river Somme in Picardy. 1346-1347 Siege of Calais, which would remain English until 1558.

The Black Death

1348

Bubonic plague pandemic. Reached England. By summer 1349 it covered the entire country, before dying down by December. Decimated the population. In the long term, the decrease in population caused a shortage of labour, with subsequent rise in wages, resisted by the landowners, which caused deep resentment among the lower classes. The Peasants' Revolt of 1381 was largely a result of this resentment, and even though the rebellion was suppressed, in the long term serfdom was ended in England.

Battle of Poitiers

1356

Battle of Poitiers: Edward the Black Prince, son of Edward III, captured the French king John II and France plunged into chaos. He later bought his freedom for £500,000.

Treaty of Brétigny

1360

Treaty of Brétigny. It marked the end of the first phase of the Hundred Years War (1337-1360) and guaranteed that Edward III would renounce his claim to the French throne as long as the French recognised the control he had re-established over the areas previously held by the English crown. Plus, the English would pay no homage to the king of France.

The return of the plague

Period: 1361 to 1362

The plague returned to England, this time causing the death of around 20% of the population. After this the plague continued to return intermittently throughout the 14th and 15th centuries, in local or national outbreaks. From this point on its effect became less severe, and one of the last outbreaks of the plague in England was the Great Plague of London in 1665–66.

Richard II's reign

Period: 1377 to 1399

From 1377 to 1380 he imposed a series of taxes

The Peasant's Revolt

Jun 14, 1381

Wycliff's death (Lollardism)

1382

Wycliff, one of the most important figures in the Lollard movement, is burned at the stake

Henry IV of Lancaster's reign

Period: 1399 to 1413

Henry IV of Lancaster became king after Richard II was deposed.

Henry V's reign

Period: 1413 to 1422

Henry V became king of a kingdom that was peaceful and united. He felt able to begin fighting the French again. However, Henry V died before the French king, and the thrones of England and France were inherited by Henry V's baby son, Henry VI, who would be crowned in Paris and became king.

Henry V's claim to the French throne + Battle of Agincourt

1415

Henry V renewed the claim to the throne of France and defeated the French army in the Battle of Agincourt. He was then able to capture most of Normandy and the surrounding areas

Henry V recognised heir to French throne

1420

Henry V was finally recognised as heir to the French throne by the treaty of Troyes and also married the French king’s daughter, Katherine of Valois

Henry VI's reign

Period: 1422 to 1461

Inherited the throne when he was just a baby.

Siege of Orleans

1428

Siege of Orleans: 12 October 1428 – 8 May 1429. This was the French royal army's first major military victory after the defeat at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, and also the first while Joan of Arc was with the army.

Battle of Patay

1429

Battle of Patay: 18 June 1429. Decisive victory for the French.

Jack Cade's Revolt

1450

“The first popular revolt since 1381, led by the obscure but talented John Cade, who seized London for a few days and denounced the king’s ministers.” (Morgan: 203). A major rebellion against the government of King Henry VI of England; although the uprising was suppressed, it contributed to the breakdown of royal authority that led to the War of the Roses (1455-1487) between the houses of York and Lancaster.

Battle of Castillon - French victory, England lost Gascony, only Calais remained.

Jul 17, 1453

Battle of Castillon: 17 July 1453, “Gascony [...] was invaded by the triumphant French armies, and after their victory at Castillon on 17 July 1453, the English territories in the south-west were entirely lost. This was the most shattering blow of all: Gascony had been English since the twelfth century, and the long-established wine and cloth trades with south-west France were seriously disrupted. Of Henry V’s ‘empire’, only Calais now remained.”. End of the HYW

The War of the Roses

Period: 1455 to 1485

The defeat in the Hundred Years War and the periods of mental illness that affected king Henry VI had been raising doubt among the nobles about who should be ruling the country. The instability in England and the enmity between the Lancaster and York families were the main reasons why the war began.

The War of the Roses

Period: 1455 to 1485

The Duke of York claimed the throne for himself, but he died in battle.

1460

Edward IV gets the throne and imprisons Henry VI

1461

After taking up his father's struggle, Edward IV, son of the duke of York, won the throne. He imprisoned Henry VI in the Tower of London for 9 years.

A Lancastrian army rescued Henry VI and chased Edward IV out of England.

1470

Edward IV's return and safety as king

1471

Edward IV returned to England with a new army, supported by the merchants of London and the southeast of England, and defeated the Lancasters. “At last Edward IV was safe on the throne. Henry VI died in the Tower of London soon after, almost certainly murdered.”

Edward IV's death

1483

His son Edward V, who was only twelve years old, was supposed to take the throne. However, he was never crowned, and Edward IV’s own brother, Richard of Gloucester, deposed him and took the throne, becoming King Richard III. Edward V was sent, together with his brother, to the Tower of London, and they were never seen again. Responsibility for their deaths is usually attributed to Richard III (Shakespeare wrote a play about it) but his guilt was never proved due to a lack of evidence

Battle of Bosworth Field - Henry Tudor's claim to the throne

1485

When Henry Tudor, duke of Richmond, challenged the king “with a very distant claim to royal blood through John of Gaunt [...] many discontented lords, both Lancastrians and Yorkists, joined him.” At the Battle of Bosworth Field, half of the king’s army shifted their allegiance to Henry Tudor, and Richard III was defeated and killed. “Henry Tudor was crowned king immediately, on the battlefield”, thus becoming Henry VII. End of the War of the Roses.

Henry VII's reign

Period: 1485 to 1509

In order to reinforce his claim to the throne, and in an attempt to unite the houses who had been at war for so long, he married Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV and niece of Richard III. // The country was bankrupt, and Henry VII needed to replenish the treasury. Imposed taxes and fines. There were some rebellions but his reign came to a good end. Funded expeditions and built a fleet of ships. He forged diplomatic arrangements

Tudor dynasty

Period: 1485 to 1603

Henry VII's agreement with the Netherlands

1486

Henry VII made an important trade agreement with the Netherlands which allowed England to grow again (England's trading position had been badly damaged during the 15th century, and particularly during the War of the Roses.

Henry VIII's reign

Period: 1509 to 1547

Henry VIII became king. At some point awarded the title Fidet defensor (defender of the fate) by the pope. His break with the church was more political rather than religiousor doctrinal. Act of Supremacy, Act of Succession, Act of Treason. Inherited a full treasury and spent it al. Waged war against France. The Rough Wooing of Scotland.

Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon + divorce issue

Period: 1510 to 1526

1510 Henry VIII married Catherine of Aragon
By 1526, Catherine of Aragon had not had a son who survived infancy and was unlikely to do so. Henry tried to persuade the pope to allow him to get divorced. Wolsey, his minister, hoped that he would be able to persuade the pope as well, but the pope was controlled by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and king of Spain, Catherine’s nephew. For political and family reasons, he did not agree to Henry’s divorce, and neither did the pope.

Acts were passed to make the break with Rome legal

Period: 1532 to 1536

Until 1536, Several Acts of Parliament were passed, through which he made the break with Rome legal. England became politically a Protestant country, although the popular religion was still Catholic.
1534: Act of Supremacy passed by the Parliament → king now legally head of the church in England. He was now free to divorce Catherine and marry Anne Boleyn.

Henry VIII and Cromwell's survey and closing of monasteries

Period: 1536 to 1539

Until 1539. Henry VIII took the Reformation one step further. Thomas Cromwell took the role of the king’s chief minister. Together, they carried out a survey of Church property. They closed 560 monasteries and other religious houses. To make money, but also to become popular with the rising classes of landowners and merchants (to whom he would give or sell the land, while monks and nuns were thrown out.)

Edward VI's reign

Period: 1547 to 1553

Raised by his uncles in the Protestant faith, he was a firm believer. He pushed the evangelical reform even further.
Although most English people still believed in the old Catholic religion, and less than half the English were Protestant by belief, a new prayer book was issued to include the complete forms of service for daily and Sunday worship in English.to make sure that all churches followed the new Protestant religion. Most people were not very happy.
Died at the age of 16.

Mary I's reign

Period: 1553 to 1558

Mary I became queen. Super catholic, persecuted and burned protestants at the stake. Married her cousin Philip II of Spain to make alliances with Spanish and Catholics. Had phantom pregnancies. Died.

Elizabeth I's reign

Period: 1558 to 1603

Elizabeth I, Mary I's half sister, became queen. Protestant. Undergoes process so people can identify her as a virgin queen. Henry VIII's daughter by Anne Boleyne. Two big challenges: first, to establish Religious Settlement to standardise and unify the religious practices. La Gran Empresa: Philip's ships were going to attack England. Refusal to marry.

English attacks on Spanish ships returning from American colonies

1570

Since 1570 English ships had been attacking Spanish ships as they returned from America, because Spain refused to allow England to trade freely with the Spanish American colonies.

James VI became king of Scotland

1578

In Scotland, son of Mary Queen of Scots, James VI, started to rule at the age of 12. Showed great skill. He knew that if he behaved correctly he could expect to inherit the throne of England after Elizabeth’s death, because he was her closest relative.

Catholicism perceived as England's enemy

1585

By this date, most English people believed that to be a Catholic was to be an enemy of England. The Catholic plots and the dangers of a foreign Catholic invasion had changed people’s feelings.

Mary I's execution + Philip's Armada + Francis Drake

1587

Partly because Mary had named Philip of Spain as her heir to throne of England, and Philip had decided to invade. Conquering England was the step previous to defeating Dutch rebels in the Netherlands. He had been building a great fleet of ships, but Francis Drake attacked and destroyed part of the fleet in Cadiz harbour. The Spanish enterprise was delayed. Philip built a new Armada, but most of the ships were designed to carry soldiers - the few fighting ships were not as good as the English.

Battle between Spanish Armada and British Navy

1588

Battle between Spanish Armada and British Navy. Elizabeth summoned her soldiers and won their hearts. The Spanish armada was later defeated more by bad weather than by the English guns. Glorious moment for England, but not the end of the war with Spain (Peace would only be made after Elizabeth’s death).

East India Company

1600

the East India Company, established mainly because the Dutch controlled the entire spice trade with the East Indies (Indonesia). Spices were extremely important and profitable, and the English were determined to have a share in this rich trade, but they were unsuccessful at first. The EIC began operating in India

Elizabeth's death + Start of the STUART Dynasty with James

1603

Elizabeth died (70y.o.) and James VI of Scotland gained the throne, becoming James I of England. Start of the STUART dynasty. Few had seen it coming. Many did not like the idea of having a new king from Scotland, considered to be the wild northern neighbour. The fact that England accepted him suggests that its leading statesmen had confidence in James’s skills.