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Seward as Secretary of State
Lincoln and Johnson's Secretary of State, William Seward, was a pioneer imperialist and the most influential Sec. of State since John Quincy Adams (who co-founded the Monroe Doctrine). Seward kept European support away from the Confederacy and bought Alaska from Russia, who was in danger of losing it anyway after a long feud over it with Great Britain (ultimately, the purchase became known as "Seward's Folly"). He foreshadowed U.S. imperialism beginning under President McKinley in the 1890s. -
German Aggression
Germany begins a war to unite German states into an empire. The "nationalism" and "imperialism" factors of WWI begin. -
Birth of the German Empire
As Germany is united into an empire, rapid industrialization occurs. Germany forms the Triple Alliance with Italy and Austria-Hungary. The "alliances" factor leading to WWI begins. -
Pan-American Conference
Influential Sec. of State James G. Blaine (ME) met with Western Hemisphere representatives in the Pan-American Conference to create the Pan-American Union to cooperate on economic and political issues. -
The Influence of Sea Power Upon History by Mahon
U.S. Navy Captain Alfred Thayer Mahon argued for a strong navy to assert a country's power on the world stage. The U.S. Navy indeed increased as the public felt the U.S. would be sidelined. It took Samoa in the Pacific. Other Imperialist arguments were based on a desire for an overseas empire to escape Gilded Age problems as well as a desire to spread democracy and Christianity ("The White Man's Burden) led by people like Rev. Josiah Strong. The popular press egged the nation on. -
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Anti-Imperialist Arguments & Jingoism
Anti-Imperialists argued: 1) Self-determination (imperialism is morally wrong because it takes away the right of people to govern themselves), 2) rejection of racist imperialist theories (although some only wanted to avoid other races), 3) isolationism (as urged by Washington in his Farewell Address), or 4) opposition to the expense of imperialism. In contrast, jingoism swept the U.S. It called for an aggressive foreign policy based on nationalism but was rejected by 1890s presidents. -
Coup in Hawaii
The U.S. sought control over Hawaii's Pearl Harbor to exert influence in the Pacific. In 1870, Grant sought Pearl Harbor and new treaties and in 1875 gained a treaty giving the U.S. exclusive rights to Hawaiian sugar. In 1893, a coup including U.S. settlers overthrew Queen Liliuokalani and offered the U.S. a chance to annex Hawaii, but this was blocked by Cleveland because he was anti-imperialist. U.S. imperialism was not yet ready. Hawaii was annexed in 1900 following the Spanish-American War. -
Franco-Russian Alliance
France and Russia unite to repel the influence of the Triple Alliance. WWI looms closer as alliances form. Both sides begin militarism to intimidate other nations as nationalism and imperialism grow. As an arms race begins between GB and Germany, GB joins the Franco-Russian Alliance, turning it into the Triple Entente. -
Venezuela boundary dispute
A boundary dispute between Venezuela and the British colony of Guiana led the U.S. to apply the Monroe Doctrine, demanding Britain arbitrate the dispute. Although Britain initially denied the role of the U.S. in the dispute, it agreed to arbitrate after the U.S. threatened to militarily back Venezuela. Britain was favored in the arbitration, and ultimately formed closer, more friendly ties to the U.S. which proved essential in completing common goals in the 20th century. -
Cuban Revolt
As Cuban nationalists sought to purge Spain from Cuba or gain U.S. support to do so, Spain sent Gen. Valeriano Weyler to crush the rebellion. Weyler was autocratic and forced Cubans into deadly concentration camps. This outraged the American public (and journalists) and provided a justification for war with Spain. -
Plessy v. Ferguson
SCOTUS ruled segregation to be constitutional, creating the "separate but equal" clause. Racial segregation dominated the S and even much of the N, but Progressives paid it little attention over the following two decades. Lynchings were very common. -
Yellow Press
Yellow journalists like Pulitzer and Hearst published sensational stories to influence public opinion. They helped enrage it against Cuba through reports of Cuban concentration camps and the like. Furthermore, they reported the De Lome Letter (1898) written by a Spanish diplomat. Many viewed this, which criticized McKinley, as an official Spanish attack on U.S. honor. Finally, they attributed the explosion of the USS Maine in Havana to the Spanish without proof (it was probably an accident). -
Declaration of War Against Spain
McKinley asked for war to: 1) end barbarities, 2) protect U.S. citizens in Cuba, 3) end the economic issue to the U.S. caused by the skirmish, and 4) end the "menace" against U.S. peace. The Teller Amendment added to this by saying the U.S. would not try to keep Cuba indefinitely, for this was not its goal. -
"A Splendid Little War"
The Spanish-American War was quite brief despite ill-prepared volunteer troops in Cuba who died more often from disease than bullets. In the Philippines, Commodore George Dewey and Roosevelt's steel Navy defeated Manila Bay. Then they allied with rebels to take Manila, winning the Philippines. In Cuba, Teddy Roosevelt himself led his Rough Riders up San Juan Hill and the U.S. Navy defeated the Spanish one in Santiago Bay, winning the war. -
Treaty of Paris
1) Cuban independence, 2) U.S. acquisition of Guam and Puerto Rico, and 3) U.S. ownership of the Philippines (with a payment). Many opposed U.S. ownership of the Philippines on the basis that it violated Filipinos' right to self-determination, and anti-Imperialists almost defeated the Treaty, but it was passed regardless. Filipino leader and former U.S. ally Emilio Aguinaldo was furious he traded Spain for the U.S. and led an uprising that took the U.S. 3 years and many deaths to suppress. -
Imperialism Debates After the Spanish-American War
William Jennings Bryan, a former POTUS candidate and later Wilson's Sec. of State, led the Anti-Imperialist League. In contrast, SCOTUS ruled in the Insular Cases (1901-1903) that the Constitution does not follow the flag, i.e. U.S. territories must be granted rights by Congress. Despite the Teller Amendment, the U.S. stayed in Cuba until 1901 when it left in return for the Platt Amendment, which essentially made Cuba a U.S. protectorate by limiting its foreign policy decision-making freedom. -
Open Door Policy in China
The Chinese Empire began to fail due to political corruption and failure to modernize, leading world powers to establish spheres of influence there. Sec. of State John Hay suggested an "Open Door Policy" in China of equal trading rights, which he and the press took to be successful when no one fought back. -
Election of 1900
McKinley and Roosevelt triumphed over William Jennings Bryan, the latter of which argued free silver and anti-Imperialism. The S-A War made the U.S. a legitimate world power, reunited the North and South in part, and increased nationalism. In 1901, McKinley is assassinated and Roosevelt takes the presidency. -
Boxer Rebellion and Hay's Second Note
When the Boxers--Chinese nationalists--killed dozens of Christian missionaries, the U.S. joined an international expeditionary force to crush the rebellion. China was forced to pay a huge indemnity. Fearing the expeditionary force would try to occupy China, Hay wrote a second note to augment his first that created the Open Door Policy. This asserted the U.S. was committed to maintaining Chinese independence. Hay's notes were influential, but China was left alone due to European rivalries. -
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Socialist Party
Socialists called for extreme reform such as public ownership of railroads, utilities, and major industries like oil and steel. Eugene V. Debs, who spent time in jail after supporting the Pullman Strike (1894), ran as the party's presidential candidate in five elections. Some Socialist ideas were later accepted, such as public ownership of utilities and minimum wage laws. -
Roosevelt's Big Stick Policy
After McKinley was assassinated by an anarchist, Roosevelt ascended to the presidency. His foreign policy was simple: "speak softly and carry a big stick." This foreshadowed his aggressive and nontraditional foreign policy (Washington would have hung his head in shame). The Big Stick foreign policy led to the Panama Canal, the Roosevelt Corollary, and numerous peace efforts. -
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Panama Canal
The U.S. wanted to connect the Atlantic (PR) and Pacific (Philippines). It passed the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty (1901) to void the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850) that said neither the U.S. nor GB would attempt to control the Canal Zone alone. To defeat Colombia's resistance, Roosevelt initiated a rebellion to establish Panama. The Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty (1903) gave the U.S. control of the Canal Zone. The Canal finished in 1914, following worker deaths. Americans liked the Canal but not TR's tactics. -
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Roosevelt Corollary
Roosevelt's application of the Monroe Doctrine of occupying the ports of Latin American countries delinquent on paying debts to European nations in order to collect customs to satisfy European powers without European force -
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Roosevelt & Asia
The imperialist rivalry between the U.S. and Japan was a rather passive-aggressive relationship. Roosevelt negotiated an end to the Russo-Japanese War (1904), which Japan signed but resented. Japan secretly made a "gentlemen's agreement" with Roosevelt to restrict worker emigration if Roosevelt would fight school segregation of Japanese Americans in CA. Finally, in the Root-Takahira Agreement (1908), both parties pledged respect for their Pacific territories and support for the Open Door Policy. -
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Roosevelt's Peace Efforts
1) TR won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906 for settling the Russo-Japanese War, 2) TR helped arrange the Algeciras Conference to mediate a German-French dispute over Morocco, 3) TR led the U.S. at the International Peace Conference (1907) for limiting warfare. Additionally, TR was a leading conservationist and the first president to leave U.S. soil while in office (he traveled to Panama). -
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Progressive era
A movement that felt society needed changes following the terrible Gilded Age problems (corruption, wealth gap, big business, racism, etc.) and the government needed to make the changes. Reformers felt moderate reforms were better than radical ones. The movement included the urban middle class (white-collar workers), the professional class (who fought business corruption through professional associations), and protestants from older stock families (who believed in the Social Gospel. -
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Progressive era Ideas
Reps Roosevelt and La Follete and Dems Bryan and Wilson led reform. William James and John Dewey argued for pragmatism, the belief that "truth" should be put to the test in a democratic society. Progressives used pragmatism to challenge old ideas like laissez-faire capitalism. Frederick W. Taylor created taylorism, which focused on scientific management to maximize efficiency in factories. Progressives applied taylorism to governments as well to try to increase government efficiency. -
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Muckrakers
Muckrakers (termed by TR) were investigative journalists who exposed society's problems. Henry Demarest Lloyd attacked Standard Oil and railroads in 1881 and 1894. Lincoln Steffens and Ida Tarbell worked with McClure's Magazine, combining research with sensationalism. Photojournalist Jacob Riis ("How the Other Half Lives") focused on tenement life. Theodore Dreiser ("The Financer" & "The Titan"), Frank Norris, and Upton Sinclair ("The Jungle") wrote muckraking novels. It declined after 1910. -
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Political Reforms
1) Australian ("secret") ballot - state-issued ballot in a private booth so parties couldn't intimidate voters, 2) direct primaries (all states by 1910) to put nominating in the hands of the people, 3) direct election of U.S. senators (17th Amendment) to take big business out of the Senate, 4) initiative (forcing legislatures to consider a bill), referendum (voting on a bill), and recall (removing an unsatisfactory official) -
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Municipal Reforms
1) Mayor Samuel M. "Golden Rule" Jones of Toledo, OH, introduced much municipal reform like free kindergartens, night schools, and public playgrounds, 2) utilities came under public control, 3) the commission plan (1900) had voters elect heads of city departments (like fire, police, etc.), but the manager-council plan (1913) proved better as an elected city council hired an expert manager to oversee the departments -
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State Reforms
Reformer governors fought corporate interests: 1) Charles Evans Hughes (NY) vs. fraudulent insurance companies, 2) Hiram Johnson (CA) vs. the S Pacific Railroad, 3) Robert La Follette (WI) achieved the "Wisconsin Idea," which included a direct primary tax, tax reform, and state regulatory commissions (to monitor railroads, utilities, and businesses like insurance) -
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Maternalist Politics & Child Labor Reform
Child and Woman Labor outraged progressives. The National Child Labor Committee fought for child labor laws, while compulsory school attendance was found to be most effective in keeping children out of the workforce. Other PE reforms included temperance and social welfare like workplace safety, education, and a kinder justice system. Through maternalist politics, reformers battled issues close to mothers, disguising their goals of overturning gender roles by "taking care of their families." -
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Woman Labor Reforms
Florence Kelley and the National Consumers League fought long working hours for women. Lochner v. NY (1905) created a 10-hour workday for all, while Muller v. Oregon (1908) placed special limits on hours for women. The Triangle Shirtwaist Fire (1911) killed 146, mostly women, drawing attention to women's activism and workplace safety in factories. Although these reforms were designed to protect women, they kept women out of high-labor, high-pay jobs. -
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Roosevelt's Political Reform
1) Roosevelt enforced the Sherman Antitrust Act against "bad trusts" like Northern Securities Company & Standard Oil while leaving "good trusts" alone, 2) Roosevelt signed the Elkins Act (1903) and Hepburn Act (1906) to strengthen the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) by helping them end rebates and fix rates, 3) Upton Sinclair's The Jungle led to the Pure Food and Drug Act (no adulterated foods and drugs) and Meat Inspection Act (federal inspections of meatpacking plants) -
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Roosevelt's Conservationism
1) Roosevelt used the Forest Reserve Act of 1891 to set aside 150 million acres of federal land as national reserves, 2) Roosevelt won passage of the Newlands Reclamation Act (1902) to complete irrigation projects in the West, 3) Roosevelt held a WH Conference of governors to discuss conservation and established the National Conservation Commission under Gifford Pinchot (PA), who previously headed the U.S. Forest Service -
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Washington v. Du Bois
Booker T. Washington, an A.A. leader, argued A.A.s needed to strive for economic progress in order to prove they deserve rights. A.A. leader and scholar W.E.B. Du Bois vehemently disagreed with Washington, arguing A.A.s needed to demand political and social rights to achieve a better socioeconomic status. However, both men supported an end to segregation, and their differences were perhaps not so dramatic behind-the-scenes. -
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Civil Rights Organizations
The Niagara Movement sought protest and action to achieve equal rights. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) sought to destroy segregation and increase opportunities for A.A. children, and the National Urban League tried to help A.A.s move North. The Progressive era prompted a "Great Migration" of A.A.s to the North for better opportunities, but these were hard to find. -
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Women's Suffrage
Carrie Chapman Catt led the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) to gain suffrage to "help women take care of their families; she started at the state level but later sought an amendment. Alice Paul splintered from NAWSA and formed the National Woman's Party, which used militant strategies to gain an amendment. The WWI Home Front gave women the opportunity to prove their worth, and they earned suffrage with the 19th Amendment (1920). Catt formed the League of Women Voters. -
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More Reforms for Women
1) Liberal marriage and divorce laws, 2) educational and professional opportunities, 3) property ownership, 4) Margaret Sanger's birth control (and eugenics, which was forced sterilization), 5) battles against prostitution -
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Temperance Reforms
In the PE, temperance became not only a social issue but a political one; reformers hoped temperance would reduce corruption, crime, and immigrants resisting assimilation by going to bars in ethnic neighborhoods. Frances Willard and Carrie Nation formed the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU). The 18th Amendment temporarily outlawed alcohol. -
Roosevelt's "Square Deal"
Following a long coal strike, Roosevelt invited mine owners and a union leader to the White House. After Roosevelt threatened the mine owners with federal troops, they accepted a compromise: a 10% wage increase and a 9-hour workday but no requirement to recognize the union. Unlike GE presidents who sided with business, TR proved his ability to support both sides, which greatly increased his chances of victory in 1904. -
Election of 1908
Sec. of War William Howard Taft defeated William Jennings Bryan to win the presidency. Like Roosevelt, he was a trust-buster. He signed the Mann-Elkins Act (1910), which let the ICC suspend new railroad rates and oversee telegraph/telephone companies. In 1913, the 16th Amendment was passed, establishing an income tax. However, Taft's president would also lead to division in the Republican party, setting the stage for Wilson's victory in 1912. -
Split in the Republican Party
Taft supported the firing of conservationist Gifford Pinchot, signed the Payne-Aldrich Tariff (1909) despite a promise to lower the tariff, and supported conservative candidates in the 1910 election. The party tore into a conservative faction led by Taft and a progressive one that hoped Roosevelt would return. -
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Taft's Dollar Diplomacy
Taft's "dollar diplomacy" plan was meant to promote private U.S. financial investment, but anti-Imperialism rose during his presidency to counter this. He managed to gain involvement in investing in Chinese railroads, but Russia and Japan defied the Open Door policy to create a joint sphere of influence in Manchuria, China. Taft also intervened financially and militarily in Nicaragua in 1911 and 1912-1933 respectively. -
Election of 1912
Progressive Reps splintered into the Bull Moose Party in support of Roosevelt, who called for a New Nationalism plan of gov't regulation, welfare, and women's suffrage. Taft fell into the background as Woodrow Wilson called for a New Freedom plan of limits on both business and government, an end to corruption, and support of small businesses for competition. Wilson did not win 50% of the popular vote, but the Rep splinter caused him to win the electoral vote. New Nationalism led to the New Deal. -
Wilson vs. Huerta
In 1913, Gen. Victoriano Huerta had the democratically elected president killed and set up a military dictatorship, which Wilson would not recognize; Wilson then supported revolutionaries. In the Tampico Incident, U.S. sailors were seized by Huerta. He released them without apologizing, almost causing war. The ABC powers of SA--Argentina, Brazil, and Chile--mediated instead, avoiding war. -
Underwood Tariff
On his first day in office, Wilson broke tradition by addressing Congress in person about the Underwood Tariff, the first significantly lower tariff in 50 years, which they passed. The Tariff included a graduated income tax to compensate. Like Roosevelt, Wilson applied the bully pulpit to Congress. -
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Wilson's Moral Diplomacy
Wilson and Sec. of State Bryan pursued moral diplomacy. The Jones Act (1916) gave territorial status, universal male suffrage, and independence after stable gov't to the Philippines. Subsequently, all Puerto Ricans were given U.S. citizenship and limited self-government. Wilson removed the exemption for U.S. ships from Panama Canal poll taxes. Finally, Bryan negotiated 30 conciliation treaties in which angry nations submitted disputes to international commissions and cooled off for a year. -
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Wilson's Economic Reforms
1) The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) was formed to investigate "unfair trade practices," 2) the Clayton Antitrust Act strengthened the Sherman Antitrust Act in its ability to break monopolies and prevented prosecution of unions as trusts, 3) the Federal Farm Loan Act created federal farm loan banks to help farmers, and 4) the Child Labor Act (1916) shut down interstate commerce of products made by children under 14, but SCOTUS struck it down -
Creation of the Fed
The Federal Reserve Act of 1914 established the Federal Reserve Board (the Fed), which would provide stability and flexibility to the U.S. banking system. Wilson proposed the idea to address the inflexibility of the gold standard and the influence of stock speculators on banks. -
Outbreak of WWI
A Serbian nationalist kills Archduke Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, in Bosnia, providing the final piece of the puzzle leading to WWI. Austria-Hungary blames Serbia itself (which denies blame) and declares war. Russia comes to the defense of Serbia, and Germany declares war on Russia and then its ally France. -
Wilson vs. Villa
In 1914, Huerta fell and was replaced by Venustiano Carranza, whose regime was more democratic. Rebels led by Pancho Villa challenged Carranza and raided across the U.S. border. The latter move warranted Gen. Pershing to lead an expeditionary force into Mexico to capture Villa. Pershing failed, and Carranza protested the U.S. in Mexico. Finally, WWI drew the U.S. out. Although the S-A War and increased imperialism grew the U.S. on the world stage, most Americans still focused on domestic issues. -
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U.S. Neutrality
Wilson tried to maintain neutrality in WWI despite German aggression. Unintentionally, the U.S. provided much greater aid to the Allies, partially because access was easier. Public opinion also favored GB and France due to positive relations and British propaganda. Although Wilson's pacifism won his reelection, he asked for war shortly after due to the sinking of the Lusitania, Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare, human rights violations in Belgium and Armenia, and the Zimmermann Telegram. -
Sinking of the Lusitania
As GB blockaded Germany, Germany set submarines to blockade GB. These submarines torpedoed the British passenger ship Lusitania, killing 128 Americans. Wilson responded by threatening Germany, which caused Bryan to resign from the cabinet. Further attacks on the Arabic and the Sussex finally gained the U.S. Germany's Sussex pledge to not sink ships without warning. However, this resumed in 1917. -
National Defense Act
Eastern Reps like Roosevelt called for "preparedness" to drastically increase the size of the unprepared U.S. military in case of war. Wilson, like Dems, initially opposed preparedness but eventually changed his mind and asked for Congress to increase the military size. Foreign policy experts believed a German victory could upend the world order. Pacifist progressives like Bryan, Jane Addams, and Jeanette Rankin opposed preparedness due to fears it would lead to war. -
Election of 1916
Wilson barely defeated Rep Charles Evans Hughes, a SCOTUS justice and former NY governor on the basis that "He kept us out of war." In 1912, he only won because of the split in the Rep party between TR and Taft. Wilson sought peace in Europe by sending Colonel Edward House to European capitals and by making other efforts to mediate. In January 1917, Wilson clamored for "peace without victory." -
Zimmermann Telegram
The U.S. discovered a telegram from Germany to Mexico offering to help Mexico retake parts of the U.S. should Mexico ally itself with Germany. This convinced the people Germany was actively against the U.S. and was a major factor in the war declaration. -
Home Front Mobilization
A total war like WWI required full mobilization of the nation. Wilson mobilized industry to support the war, foreshadowing government leadership during the time of the New Deal. The bureaucracy grew: 1) War Industries Board under Bernard Baruch, 2) Food Administration under Herbert Hoover, 3) Fuel Administration under Harry Garfield, 4) Railroad Administration under William McAdoo, Nat'l War Labor Board under Taft. Liberty Bonds and taxes funded the war. -
Selective Service Act
Set up the draft and ensured it included all groups fairly. African Americans served in the war but in segregated units. Despite Du Bois' hopes that A.A. service would earn them equal rights, it did not. -
The Bolshevik Revolution
Russian revolutionaries overthrew the czar of Russia, removing Wilson's discomfort of siding with an autocratic nation. As the war raged, Bolsheviks led by Vladimir Lenin overthrew the new government, ripping Russia out of the war and establishing a Communist regime, trading authoritarianism for communism. Nonetheless, the Allies were struggling without Russia, the U.S. was angry with Germany, Germany sank five more U.S. merchant ships, and Wilson was prepared for war. -
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Entry of the American Expeditionary Force
U.S. troops arrived in Europe as the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) under Gen. Pershing. Initially, they were used to fill gaps in the Allied lines, although the U.S. was not formally allied with the Allies. -
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Espionage & Sedition Acts
The Espionage Act banned inciting rebellion or dodging the draft, whereas the Sedition Act banned speaking against the government (Debs were prosecuted due to the latter). In Schenck v. U.S., SCOTUS ruled the former act to be constitutional because of the dangers of sedition to national security during a war. Similarly, the Committee on Public Information created anti-German propaganda, paralleling public anti-German sentiments. Immigration was limited. -
Chateau-Thierry & the Meuse-Argonne Offensive
Americans stopped the last German offensive at Chateau-Thierry on the Marne River and struck back at Belleau Wood. A few months later, the Allies and the U.S. pushed Germany back across its border. Germany surrender on 11/11/1918. Total U.S. fatalities were 112,432, 49,000 of which were from combat. -
Pandemic
A very deadly flu outbreak struck the U.S., but it was underreported to preserve wartime morale. -
14 Points & Treaty of Versailles
Wilson still sought peace without victory, focusing his 14 Points on restoring territory, decreasing imperialism and militarism, and forming an internat'l peace alliance. However, the other members of the Big 4 wanted to punish Germany for the damage done to their nations. Wilson had to compromise much but eventually agreed on the Treaty of Versailles. Germany was to be punished, self-determination was to be applied to territories, and a League of Nations was to be formed with mutual protection. -
Fight for Ratification
Wilson sought approval of the Treaty of Versailles but faced a Republican Congress whom he had attacked in the Election of 1918 and that objected to the League, esp. Article X (mutual protection), because it might violate U.S. sovereignty. Irreconcilables rejected the Treaty, and Reservationists demanded certain reservations. Wilson fought regardless, touring to gain support but suffering a stroke. Congress defeated the Treaty with and without reservations, making peace with Germany in 1921. -
Strikes of 1919 & Race Riots
Various strikes occured in Seattle, Boston, and regarding U.S. steel. In the South, racial violence continued with the KKK and lynching. Race riots erupted during the war, including the Tulsa Race Massacre in which the prevention of a lynching led to the destruction of "Black Wall Street" and the murders of many A.A.s. -
Red Scare & Palmer Raids
Unhappiness with the post-WWI peace process and labor unrest combined with anti-German hysteria (and anti-Communist hysteria known as the "Red Scare"). Xenophobia and decreased immigration occurred. Around the same time, unexplained bombings led AG A. Mitchell to arrest anarchists, socialists, and labor agitators, many of which were foreign-born. Eventually, hysteria receeded.