-
INDEPENDENCE OF THE US
The U.S. Independence (1776) was a rebellion by thirteen colonies against British rule, driven by unfair taxes and lack of representation. The victory in the Revolutionary War led to the Declaration of Independence, shaping the U.S. as a sovereign nation with a federal republican government. -
SPANISH-AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE
Throughout the 19th century, Spanish colonies in Latin America sought and achieved independence in a series of movements known as the Latin American Wars of Independence. -
FRENCH REVOLUTION
The French Revolution (1789-1799) was a period of radical change in France, marked by the fall of the monarchy, the rise of the Republic, and significant societal shifts. It stemmed from social inequality, financial issues, and a lack of representation, with key events like the Storming of the Bastille and the Declaration of the Rights of Man. The revolution left a lasting impact on global ideals of democracy and human rights. -
NAPOLEON EMPIRE
Napoleon's Empire (1804-1814) was a period during which Napoleon Bonaparte became Emperor of France. His military conquests expanded the French Empire across much of Europe. During this time, he implemented legal and administrative reforms, including the Napoleonic Code. However, his expansionist ambitions and constant wars eventually led to his defeat in 1814, marking the end of his empire. -
THE SPANISH WAR OF INDEPENCENCE (1808-1814)
This conflict took place during the Napoleonic Wars and was characterized by Spanish and Portuguese resistance against French occupation. -
THE CONSTITUTION OF CÁDIZ
This liberal constitution established a constitutional monarchy in Spain during the period known as the Liberal Triennium. -
CONGRESS OF VIENA
The Congress of Vienna, held between 1814 and 1815, was an international conference that brought together European leaders after the Napoleonic Wars. The primary goal was to reorganize Europe and restore a balance of power following the fall of Napoleon Bonaparte. New borders were established, and agreements were made to prevent future conflicts, marking the beginning of a period of stability in Europe. -
THE BOURBON RESTORATION
After the War of Independence, the Bourbon monarchy was restored in Spain with the return of Ferdinand VII to the throne. -
FERDINAND VII
The reign of Ferdinand VII (1814-1833) was marked by the struggle between liberal and conservative factions, as well as episodes such as the Liberal Triennium. -
REVOLUTION
The 1820 Revolution was a political and social movement that occurred in various parts of Europe. It was driven by popular discontent with monarchical regimes and the pursuit of political reforms. While it did not achieve lasting changes everywhere, it marked a period of unrest and demands for civil and political rights in countries such as Spain, Italy, and Greece. -
THE LIBERAL TRIENNIUM (1820-1823)
This was a brief period of liberal government that followed a military pronouncement in 1820 but ended with the intervention of conservative powers. -
MONROE DOCTRINE
The Monroe Doctrine was a U.S. policy warning European powers against further colonization or interference in the affairs of independent nations in the Americas. -
REVOLUTION
The 1830 Revolution was a political and social movement that occurred in several European countries. Driven by popular discontent with monarchical regimes, lack of representation, and economic tensions, it led to significant changes such as the abdication of monarchs and the establishment of more liberal political systems in places like France and Belgium.v -
ISABELLA II (1833-1868)
Isabella II was the queen of Spain during a period of political instability and conflicts between liberals and conservatives. -
THE OPIUM WARS (1839-1842 and 1856-1860)
The Opium Wars were conflicts between China and Britain over trade imbalances and the British opium trade. The treaties that ended these wars had significant consequences for China. -
ALFONSO XII (1857-1885)
He was the king of Spain from 1874 to 1885. Alfonso XII's reign set the stage for the continued challenges and changes that would characterize Spain's political landscape into the early 20th century. -
ITALIAN UNIFICATION
The unification of Italy, known as the Risorgimento, primarily took place in the 1860s. Led by figures like Giuseppe Garibaldi and Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, this process consolidated various Italian states into a unified nation. Italy was officially proclaimed as a unified kingdom on March 17, 1861, although the incorporation of all territories was completed later in the 1870s, marking the culmination of the unification process. -
AMERICAN CIVIL WAR (1861-1865)
The American Civil War was a conflict between the Northern states (Union) and the Southern states (Confederacy) over issues including slavery. The Union's victory had profound consequences for the United States. -
MEIJI RESTORATION
The Meiji Restoration marked the end of the Tokugawa shogunate in Japan and the restoration of imperial rule. It led to rapid modernization and industrialization of Japan. -
GERMAN UNIFICATION
The unification of Germany took place primarily in 1871 under the leadership of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. The process, known as the "German Unification War" or "Franco-Prussian War," involved a series of military conflicts that culminated in the proclamation of the German Empire on January 18, 1871, at the Palace of Versailles. Bismarck and the Kingdom of Prussia played a central role in consolidating various German states into a single unified nation, establishing the Second German Reich. -
BISMARCKIAN ALLIANCES (Late 19th Century)
Otto von Bismarck, the Chancellor of the German Empire, implemented a system of alliances to maintain stability in Europe. The key alliances were the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy) and the later-formed Triple Entente (France, Russia, and the United Kingdom). -
BERLIN CONFERENCE (1884-1885)
The Berlin Conference was a meeting between European powers to regulate and facilitate the colonization and trade in Africa. It led to the partitioning of Africa among European nations. -
ALFONSO XIII (1886-1941)
Alfonso XIII, son of Alfonso XII, later became king in 1886. Their reigns saw political and social changes in Spain, including the loss of the Spanish colonies in the Americas. -
FASHODA INCIDENT
The Fashoda Incident was a standoff between French and British imperial forces in Sudan. It highlighted the tensions between the two powers in Africa. -
BOER WAR (1899-1902)
The Boer War, also known as the Second Anglo-Boer War, was fought between the British Empire and Boer settlers in South Africa. It resulted in British victory. -
MAROCCAN CRISES (1905-1906 and 1911)
The Moroccan Crises were diplomatic incidents involving competition among European powers for influence in Morocco. -
BALKAN WARS
Two conflicts (1912-1913) involving Balkan states seeking independence from the Ottoman Empire. These wars reshaped the political landscape in the region but also contributed to the tensions that led to World War I. -
FIRST WORLD WAR
A global conflict (1914-1918) involving major world powers, primarily centered in Europe. It resulted in significant geopolitical changes and laid the groundwork for the subsequent events of the 20th century. -
OCTOBER REVOLUTION
Led by the Bolsheviks under Vladimir Lenin, this revolution in 1917 resulted in the establishment of a socialist government in Russia, ultimately leading to the formation of the Soviet Union. -
FEBRUARY REVOLUTION
The 1917 uprising in Russia led to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the establishment of a provisional government, setting the stage for the October Revolution later that year. -
TREATY OF BREST-LITOVSK
Signed in 1918 between Germany and Soviet Russia, this treaty marked Russia's exit from World War I. It resulted in the loss of significant territories and resources for Russia. -
TREATY OF VERSAILLES
Signed in 1919, this treaty officially ended World War I. It imposed harsh terms on Germany, contributing to economic hardships and political instability that fueled later conflicts. -
BLOODY SUNDAY
Bloody Sunday occurred in Dublin on 21 November 1920 and would mark a turning point for the War of Independence leaving 31 people dead in a single day. This would become an important event in the military struggle between the IRA and the British armed forces in Ireland at the time. -
LEAGUE OF NATIONS
Founded in 1920, it aimed to prevent future conflicts through international cooperation but faced challenges and ultimately proved ineffective in preventing the outbreak of World War II. -
PRIMO DE RIVERA DICTATORSHIP.
The dictatorship of General Miguel Primo de Rivera, who ruled Spain from 1923 to 1930, characterized by authoritarian rule and attempts at modernization. -
WALL STREET CRASH
The Wall Street Crash occurred on October 29, 1929, signaling the onset of the Great Depression. It was a catastrophic stock market collapse in the United States, leading to widespread economic hardship globally. The event triggered a decade-long economic downturn, characterized by unemployment, poverty, and financial instability. -
1931 CONSTITUTION
The adoption of a new constitution in Spain in 1931, following the abdication of King Alfonso XIII and the establishment of the Second Spanish Republic, marking a shift towards a more democratic system. -
SPANISH SECOND REPUBLIC.-
The period from 1931 to 1939 in Spain, characterized by democratic and social reforms, but also by political instability and polarization, ultimately leading to the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War. -
ASTURIAS MINER´S STRIKE
A labor strike in the Asturias region of Spain in 1934, primarily by coal miners, against the government's policies, which was brutally suppressed by the military. -
SPANISH CIVIL WAR
A conflict fought from 1936 to 1939 between the Republicans, who were loyal to the Spanish Republic, and the Nationalists, led by General Francisco Franco, resulting in Franco's victory and the establishment of a dictatorship. -
SECOND WORLD WAR
The Second World War was a global conflict that involved the majority of the world's nations, including major powers like Germany, Japan, the Soviet Union, the United States, and the United Kingdom. It began on September 1, 1939, with Germany's invasion of Poland. The war saw significant battles on multiple fronts, including Europe, Africa, and the Pacific, and resulted in widespread destruction and loss of life. -
FRANCO DICTATORSHIP
General Franco's autocratic rule in Spain (1939-1975) was characterized by censorship, political repression, and centralized authority, shaping the country's socio-political landscape for decades. -
OPERATION BARBAROSSA
Operation Barbarossa was the code name for Nazi Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union, launched on June 22, 1941. The Germans aimed to conquer Soviet territory and eliminate the Soviet government. Despite initial successes, the harsh Russian winter and Soviet resistance turned the tide, leading to Germany's eventual defeat on the Eastern Front. -
ATTACK ON PEARL HARBOR
On December 7, 1941, the Imperial Japanese Navy launched a surprise attack on the U.S. Pacific Fleet stationed at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. This attack prompted the United States to enter World War II. The event is remembered as a major turning point that galvanized American public opinion and commitment to the war effort. -
UNITED NATIONS
The United Nations (UN) was established on October 24, 1945, with the goal of promoting international cooperation and preventing future conflicts. It replaced the League of Nations and has since become a central organization for diplomacy, peacekeeping, and addressing global issues. -
ATOMIC BOMB ON HIROSHIMA AND NAGASAKI
In the closing stages of World War II, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945, and Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. These bombings led to Japan's surrender and raised profound ethical and geopolitical questions about the use of nuclear weapons. -
COLD WAR
The Cold War (1947-1991) was a period of geopolitical tension between the Western bloc led by the United States and the Eastern bloc led by the Soviet Union, featuring proxy wars, nuclear arms race, and ideological competition. -
TRUMAN DOCTRINE
The Truman Doctrine (1947) was a US foreign policy initiative aimed at containing the spread of communism, providing economic and military aid to countries threatened by communist expansion, and shaping US global strategy during the Cold War. -
UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
Adopted on December 10, 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a milestone document that outlines fundamental rights and freedoms to which all people are entitled. It serves as a foundational text for international human rights law and advocacy. -
ARAB-ISRAELI WARS
Series of conflicts between Israel and its Arab neighbors, notably in 1948, 1967, and 1973, over issues of territory, borders, and regional dominance, shaping the modern Middle East. -
CHINESE REVOLUTION
The Chinese Revolution (1949) led by Mao Zedong established the People's Republic of China, transforming the country into a communist state and ending centuries of imperial rule. -
KOREAN WAR
The Korean War (1950-1953) saw North Korea, supported by China and the Soviet Union, clash with South Korea, backed by the United Nations, resulting in an armistice and the division of the Korean peninsula. -
BANDUNG CONFERENCE
The Bandung Conference (1955) convened Asian and African nations, promoting principles of anti-colonialism, non-alignment, and cooperation, laying the foundation for the Non-Aligned Movement. -
VIETNAM WAR
The Vietnam War (1955-1975) was a prolonged conflict between North Vietnam, supported by communist allies, and South Vietnam, backed by the United States and its allies, resulting in the reunification of Vietnam under communist rule. -
BERLIN WALL
Erected in 1961 by East Germany to prevent East Berliners from fleeing to the West, the Berlin Wall became a symbol of the Cold War division until its fall in 1989, signaling the end of the Cold War era. -
CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS
The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) brought the world to the brink of nuclear war as the United States and the Soviet Union confronted each other over the placement of Soviet missiles in Cuba, eventually defusing the crisis through diplomatic negotiations.