U.S. Presidents

By GabeE1124

  • Formation of the First Cabinet

    The Cabinet's role is to advise the President on any subject he or she may require relating to the duties of each member's respective office. It was included with him, Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State, Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury, Henry Knox as Secretary of War, and Edmund Randolph as Attorney General.
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    George Washington

    George Washington is from Westmoreland County, VA. He was mostly educated by his mother. He didn't go to college. He was a Major General and Commander-in-Chief in the Continental Army. Before this, volunteered for active duty. He was a surveyor of Culpeper County in the Colony of Virginia. His father was a business man, and his mother was an American planter. After office, Washington went to build his mansion and expand his economic enterprise.

  • Creation of the Federal Court System

    The Judiciary Act of 1789 established the federal court system separate from individual state courts. It was one of the first acts of the First Congress. Also included the supreme court.

  • Copyright Act of 1790

    This act was the first federal copyright statute in the United States and granted copyright protection to "authors and inventors" for a term of 14 years, with the possibility of renewal for another 14 years if the author was still alive at the end of the initial term.

  • Bank Act of 1791

    An Act to incorporate the subscribers to the Bank of the United States. The bank was intended to serve as a central repository for federal funds and to provide the fledgling country with a stable and uniform currency.

  • Ratification of the Bill of Rights

    This amended the Constitution to include a list of rights and freedoms. The Bill of Rights is the first 10 Amendments to the Constitution. It spells out Americans' rights in relation to their government. It guarantees civil rights and liberties to the individual.

  • Passage of the Coinage Act of 1792

    This established the United States Mint in Philadelphia. The act provided stipulations for the design and production of coins, laying the foundation for modern U.S. currency.

  • Neutrality Proclamation

    This declared the United States neutral in the conflict between France and Great Britain. And to help not spread the war into Europe.

  • Whiskey Rebellion

    Washington led federal troops to suppress a rebellion in western Pennsylvania against the whiskey tax, asserting federal authority. This was the first tax imposed on a domestic product by the newly formed federal government.

  • Jay Treaty

    A treaty with Great Britain that sought to resolve issues left over from the Revolutionary War. And provides that American Indians may travel freely across the international boundary.

  • Farewell Address

    Washington published his Farewell Address, advising against permanent alliances with foreign nations and political factions at home. And to warn Americans against the danger of political parties, to remain neutral in foreign conflicts and to celebrate their achievements.

  • XYZ Affair

    Adams faced tensions with France, leading to an undeclared naval war known as the Quasi-War. The XYZ Affair involved French diplomats demanding bribes from American envoys, which led to a public outcry in the United States.
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    John Adams

    Adams is from Braintree, MA. He graduated from Harvard College. John Adams does not have a military background. He was a vice president for George Washington and a diplomat. His son, John Quincy Adams, became the president later on. Adams's wife was fighting for women rights. After office, he retired and went back home in MA.

  • Alien and Sedition Acts

    Adams signed into law the Alien and Sedition Acts, which were aimed at limiting immigration and suppressing dissent. These acts were controversial and led to criticism of Adams and his administration.

  • Navy Department Act

    This act established the Department of the Navy as a separate cabinet department to oversee the naval forces of the United States.

  • Naturalization Act of 1798

    This act extended the residency requirement for American citizenship from five to 14 years, aimed at slowing down the process of foreigners becoming citizens.

  • Judiciary Act of 1801

    This act expanded the federal court system, creating 16 new federal judgeships and other judicial offices. It was part of Adams' efforts to shape the judiciary before leaving office, leading to the "Midnight Judges" controversy.
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    Thomas Jefferson

    Thomas Jefferson was from Shadwell, VA. Jefferson got his education at William & Mary college in Williamsburg. Jefferson did not have any military career. He was the Governor of Virginia and secretary of state under Washington. He didn't have any notable family members. After office, he retired to Monticello.

  • Creation of the United States Military Academy

    Jefferson signs legislation establishing the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York.

  • Louisiana Purchase

    The United States purchases the Louisiana Territory from France, effectively doubling the size of the country. They bought it for 828,000 square miles of land west of the Mississippi River for $15 million.

  • Ratifying the Twelfth Amendment

    The Twelfth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution is officially ratified, allowing for the presidential election of 1804 to be conducted under new rules.

  • Treaty of Peace and Amity in Tripoli

    The United States and Tripoli sign a Treaty of Peace and Amity in Tripoli, effectively ending the Tripolitan War.

  • Jefferson addresses Congress regarding Florida

    Jefferson cites the need to prepare for war with Spain. Privately, Jefferson informs Congress of secret negotiations with France in order to buy the territory from them and asks for five million dollars to be appropriated.

  • Jefferson warns Americans

    In Washington, D.C., President Jefferson publicly warns citizens not to take part in a plot to invade Spanish territory. Jefferson issues this warning after having been told of Aaron Burr's subversive activities with respect to annexing Spanish territory.

  • Repeal of the Slave Trade Act

    Jefferson signs a law that prohibits the importation of slaves into the United States, although it does not affect the existing domestic slave trade.

  • Chesapeake-Leopard Affair

    a naval engagement off the coast of Norfolk, Virginia between the British fourth-rate HMS Leopard and the American frigate USS Chesapeake. The crew of Leopard pursued, attacked, and boarded the American frigate, looking for deserters from the Royal Navy.

  • Embargo Act

    Jefferson signs the Embargo Act, which prohibited American ships from trading in all foreign ports. Response to British and French interference with neutral U.S. merchant ships during the Napoleonic Wars.

  • Non-Intercourse Act

    Jefferson signs the Non-Intercourse Act, which lifted the embargo on American shipping, except for trade with Britain and France.
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    James Madison

    Madison is from Belle Grove in Virginia. He went to College of New Jersey. Which is Princeton University today. He did not have a military background. Before president, he was a member of the Virginia house, a U.S. Representative, and secretary of State under Jefferson. His brother served in the House of Virginia. After office, he retired to his plantation.

  • Erskine Agreement

    Revoking the embargo on Britain, effective June 10. For his part, Erskine leads Madison to believe that Britain will revoke its Orders in Council.

  • Macon's Bill Number 2

    Which allows American ships to carry French or English goods while barring belligerent powers from American ports. The bill further promises to renew nonintercourse with one of the two belligerent nations if the other withdraws its decrees.

  • Presidential Vetoes

    Madison vetoes two bills of Congress, one granting land in the Mississippi Territory to a Baptist congregation and the other incorporating an Episcopal church in Washington, D.C. Madison argues that both bills violate the non-establishment clause of the First Amendment.

  • Bank of U.S. Closes

    The Bank of the United States closes. Treasury Secretary Gallatin urges Congress to extend its charter but fails to convince members concerned with the large British interest in the Bank.

  • Army Bill

    Congress passes an Army bill to enlarge the second regular army to 25,000. The increase in manpower is far greater than Madison's request -- he had asked for a force of 10,000 -- but the bill provides less flexibility than Madison had requested.

  • Relations with Canada

    Madison shares the letters of John Henry, agent for governor of Canada, with Congress, having purchased the letters the previous month for $50,000. The documents indicate that the governor general of Canada is inciting rebellion in New England.

  • Drafting War Message

    Madison sees the letter from Lord Castlereagh to British minister Foster confirming the continuance of the Orders in Council, and the President begins drafting his war message to Congress.

  • Madison's Seventh message to Congress

    Madison presents his seventh annual message to Congress, advocating military streamlining, a new national bank, protective tariffs to promote industry, and internal improvements.

  • Re-charting a national bank

    Madison signs a bill re-chartering a new national bank in Philadelphia. The charter is set for a twenty-one year term.

  • Indiana becomes a state

    Madison signs a bill admitting Indiana to statehood.
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    James Monroe

    Monroe was from Monroe Hall, VA. He got his education from College of William & Mary. He served in the Continental Army and a lieutenant. He was a member of the Virginia house. He was a US senator. And secretary of state under Madison. He didn't have any notable family members. After office, he retired to his estate in Virginia.

  • Monroe tours England

    Monroe embarks on a lengthy, sixteen-week tour of New England. In the absence of his major cabinet appointees, Monroe uses the tour to foster a sense of national unity through local political contact, public appearances, and private meetings with opposing Federalists.

  • Aguirre Mission

    Monroe enunciates a policy of neutrality towards the Latin American colonies seeking independence. He also advocates a controversial fact-finding mission, the Aguirre Mission, to Buenos Aires that could be construed as recognition for the colony's sovereignty.

  • Mississippi becomes a state

    Mississippi becomes the twentieth state in the Union.

  • Military Establishment Act

    Monroe signs the Military Establishment Act, forwarded by Secretary of War Calhoun, to reduce the Army's manpower by 40 percent to 6,126 men. The move reflects a shift in national priorities toward commerce and negotiation, and away from intimidation, as the primary tool of foreign policy.

  • Monroe vetoes Cumberland Road Bill

    In his last day in office, Monroe vetoes the Cumberland Road bill, which would extend construction of the interstate artery to Zanesville, Ohio. Monroe is concerned about the bill's constitutionality. Construction of the first federally financed interstate road began under Jefferson in 1811 and will continue under Adams's administration.

  • Monroe Doctrine anounced

    Warned European powers not to interfere in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere. Understandably, the United States has always taken a particular interest in its closest neighbors

  • Cherokee chiefs arrive in Washington

    Cherokee chiefs arrive in Washington, D.C., to object to the government's removal policies and plead for their sovereign right to stay in Georgia. Originally siding with the Cherokee, Monroe will later reverse his stance on the issue.

  • General Survey Bill

    Monroe signs the General Survey Bill, departing from his opposition to congressionally sponsored internal improvements. The United States Army Corps of Engineers prepare to produce surveys, plans, and estimates to improve navigation.

  • Tariff of 1824

    Monroe signs the Tariff of 1824 into law, implementing protectionist measures in support of local manufactures and goods. Complaints arise in the South with cotton-growers fearful of British retaliation for the increase in price. Northern manufacturers are pleased with the law.

  • Monroe concedes to Indian removal

    Unable to alter the demands of the Georgia congressional delegation, Monroe concedes that the only way to mitigate Indian concerns is through their removal west of the Mississippi. This position conflicts with his earlier recognition of Cherokee claims.
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    John Quincy Adams

    John Q was from Braintree, MA. He went to the Netherlands for University of Leiden. And returned to the U.S. to Harvard University. He did not have a military background. Before office, he was a US senate, a U.S. representative, and Secretary of State under James Monroe. His father, John Adams, was the 2nd president of the U.S. His son was a diplomat. After office, he was elected U.S. House of representative and continued as a diplomat.

  • Captain Porter Court-martialed

    Captain David Porter, a perennial thorn in the side of the United States Navy, is court-martialed for overstepping his powers when he chooses to land 200 troops at Fajardo, Puerto Rico, in November 1824. Porter demands an apology from the port's captain for the detention of two errant U.S. officers.

  • Erie Canal Completed

    The first passage on the 363 mile-long Erie Canal is completed from Lake Erie to New York City, linking the Atlantic and trans-Atlantic marketplaces with growing agricultural production in the Northwest states. Construction of the canal began in 1817.

  • Military Training Manuals created

    Military standardization and integration of Union and state militias is a foremost concern during the Adams administration. In response to a proposal by the secretary of war to revamp military organization and seniority systems, a joint House and Senate resolution calls for the production and dispersal of training manuals.

  • Resolutions of war damages

    Under the mediation of Czar Nicholas I, President Adams finalizes a settlement with the British over restitution for damages incurred during the War of 1812, left unresolved by the Treaty of Ghent.

  • Mexican Boundary Settlement

    Joel Poinsett accedes to a Mexican boundary settlement on behalf of the United States. This concludes a slew of unsuccessful efforts by Adams to negotiate more favorable borders than the existing Sabine River.
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    Andrew Jackson

    Jackson is from Waxhaws. He received very little education. Jackson was a major general in the battle of Pensacola. Before office, he was a U.S. Senator, Governor of Florida, judge, and a Tennessee militia. His son, served as his private secretary during Jackson's presidency. After office, he retired to his plantation.

  • Indian Removal Act

    Congress passes the Indian Removal Act, sanctioning the forcible relocation of Creek, Chickasaw, Cherokee, Choctaw, and Seminole tribes to land allotments west of the Mississippi river. Ninety-four removal treaties follow the bill's enactment

  • Jackson Vetoes Maysville Road Bill

    Jackson vetoes the Maysville Road bill, which would have sanctioned the federal government's purchase of stock for the creation of a road entirely within Kentucky, the home state of longtime foe Henry Clay. Jackson regards the project as a local matter and thinks its funding should come from local sources.

  • Peggy Eaton Affair

    Jackson reshuffles his cabinet following the divisive and ongoing “Peggy Eaton Affair.” The woman's first husband supposedly committed suicide after discovering her dalliance with Tennessee senator John Eaton, whom Jackson later names secretary of war.

  • Jackson opposes Second Bank of the United States

    President Andrew Jackson vetoed a bill that would have renewed the corporate charter for the Second Bank of the United States. It was one of the most definitive acts of his presidency.

  • Nullification Prelamination

    President Andrew Jackson issued the Nullification Proclamation, which stated that states and municipalities are forbidden from nullifying federal laws. He also threatened to enforce the proclamation with the use of federal arms.

  • Force Bill

    Pressed by Jackson, Congress passes the Force Bill, authorizing Jackson's use of the army to gain compliance for federal law in South Carolina. Vice President Calhoun voices his dissent.

  • Jackson withdrawals federal deposits

    Viewing his reelection as a mandate to continue his war against the Second Bank of the United States, Jackson issues an order for the Treasury Department to withdrawal federal deposits from the Bank of the United States and place them in state banks.

  • Jackson Terminates National Debt

    Jackson announces he will terminate the national debt, freeing the United States of foreign and domestic obligations beyond the reserves of the Treasury.

  • Specie Circular

    Jackson, along with Treasury Secretary Levi Woodbury, introduces the Specie Circular, revealing that the government will accept only gold and silver for land payments. The act serves as an attempt to check rising inflation precipitated by unprecedented land speculation and irresponsible lending.

  • Jackson recognizes Texas independence

    Jackson recognizes the independence of Texas but declines to address annexation in light of threats by Mexico and its concerns about security.
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    Martin Van Buren

    Buren is from Kinderhook, NY. He did not attend college. He does not have a military background. Before office, he was a Governor of New York, U.S. Senator, and Secretary of State under Jackson. His eldest son, served as his father's private secretary during Van Buren's presidency. After office, he returned to his home in New York.

  • Van Buren opposes the annexation of Texas

    Van Buren announces his opposition to the annexation of Texas, primarily to make possible the ensuing peace with Mexico but also to alleviate abolitionist concerns at home.

  • Van Buren calls special session

    In response to the economic crisis, Van Buren calls for a special session of Congress. As a proponent of laissez-faire, he feels no obligation toward public welfare but worries about the government's own financial situation.

  • Van Buren remains neutral

    Following the Caroline incident, Van Buren criticizes the British but maintains a neutral stance in the conflict. While Van Buren's peace appeals to the invading partisans and enjoys initial success, even the Neutrality Law of 1838 -- which provides for the arrest of people and the confiscation of arms, vehicles, and supplies flowing illegally across the border.

  • The Comet and the Encomium

    Van Buren secures an agreement with England on compensation for two slave ships, the Comet and the Encomium, which had run ashore on the British territory of the Bahamas.

  • Independent Treasury Act

    By signing the Independent Treasury Act, Van Buren “divorces” the federal Treasury Department from its relationship with all banks. His action stems from the controversy surrounding the Deposit Act of 1836. The Whigs will repeal the Independent Treasury Act in 1841; it will be restored in 1846.
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    William Henry Harrison

    He was from Berkeley Plantation, VA. He went to Hampden-Sydney College in Virginia. Then transferred to University of Pennsylvania. He served in the Indian war and the War of 1812. Before office, he was a U.S. senator, a U.S. representative, and Governor of the Indian territory. His grandson served as the 23rd President of the United States from 1889 to 1893. Unfortunately, he died just 31 days after his inauguration.
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    John Tyler

    He is from Greenway Plantation, Charles City, VA. He went to College of William & Mary. He served in the War of 1812 and commissioned as a captain in the Virginia militia. Before office, he was a member of the U.S. representative, Governor of Virginia, U.S. Senate, and VP of William Henry Harrison. He didn't have any notable family members. After office, he retired and went to his plantation. He was served as Confederate House of Representatives. But died before he can take his seat

  • Tyler's Cabinet Resigns

    Tyler's entire cabinet, with the exception of Secretary of State Daniel Webster, resigns after Tyler vetoes a second bill for the establishment of a National Bank of the United States.

  • Commonwealth V Hunt

    The Massachusetts Supreme Court establishes the legality of labor unions, including the right for workers to strike, in the case of Commonwealth v. Hunt.

  • Webster-Ashburton Treaty

    The signing of the Webster-Ashburton Treaty normalizes U.S.-British relations by adjusting the Maine-Brunswick border, settling boundary issues around western Lake Superior, and resurveying numerous smaller borders.

  • The Democrats gain majority.

    In the congressional elections, the Democrats gain a majority over the Whigs in the House of Representatives, while at the same time defending their majority in the Senate.

  • President Tyler Signs Joint Resolution for Texas Annexation

    President John Tyler signed a joint resolution to annex Texas. The resolution called for Texas to enter the United States directly as a state, with its boundaries to be determined after annexation. Under the new resolution, the United States would not assume the Republic of Texas's sizable debt, but the new state would be allowed to keep its vast public lands.
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    James Knox Polk

    Polk is from Pineville, NC. He did not go to college. He volunteered for service in the Tennessee militia and was commissioned as a captain. He was a Governor of Tennessee and a U.S. representative. His brother served colonel in the confederate army. After office, he retired to his home in Nashville Tennessee.

  • The Oregon Treaty

    The Oregon Treaty establishes the 49th parallel as the border between British and American claims to the Oregon Territory, granting the United States clear title to present-day Idaho, Washington, Oregon, and Montana, while granting to Britain territory above the 49th parallel and full control over Vancouver Island.

  • Tariff of 1846

    Congress passes the Tariff of 1846, a key part of President's Polk's domestic agenda. Known as the “Walker Tariff,” after Polk's secretary of the Treasury, Robert J. Walker, the Tariff of 1846 lowers rates toward revenue-only levels, although a few items remain protected.

  • River and Harbors Bill

    President Polk vetoes a river and harbors bill which would have provided for federally funded internal improvements. Like Andrew Jackson in his veto of the Maysville Road bill, Polk argues that the bill unfairly favors particular areas, including ports which have no foreign trade. Therefore, says Polk, the bill is unconstitutional.

  • Independent Treasury Law

    President Polk signs into law the Independent Treasury, which he calls a “Constitutional Treasury,” an integral part of his domestic agenda.

  • Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

    The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ends the Mexican War and grants the United States vast territories, including all or large parts of present-day California, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Nevada, Utah, and Wyoming, and confirms the incorporation of Texas as part of the United States. The acquisition of these lands aggravates growing sectionalism in the country over the future of slavery in the Union.
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    Zachary Taylor

    He was from Orange County, VA. He did not go to college. He served as a lieutenant in the War of 1812. He did not serve in an office other than presidency. His son-in-law later served as the President of the Confederate States of America during the Civil War. Unfortunately, he died after about a year into his presidency.

  • Compromise of 1850

    Congress debates solutions to the issue of slavery's possible expansion into the territories won in the Mexican War. Henry Clay proposes the Compromise of 1850, and Daniel Webster with Stephen Douglas lead its supporters against the measure's opponents who coalesce around John C. Calhoun of South Carolina.
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    Millard Fillmore

    He was from Summer Hill, NY. He did not go to college. He does not have a military background. He was a lawyer, a U.S. representative, and comptroller of New York. His son served as a captain in the Union Army during the Civil War. After office, he continued his law studies and ran for president again in 1856 as the candidate of the American Party, also known as the Know-Nothing Party, but he was not successful. After that, he retired from public life.

  • Fugitive Slave Bill

    Congress passes the Fugitive Slave Bill, prohibiting individuals from aiding runaway slaves, and threatening fines and imprisonment to those who do. Escaped slaves will be returned to their owners, denied a jury trial, and prevented from testifying on their own behalf. Part of the Compromise of 1850 and an attempt to ease tensions within the fractious nation, the bill is a concession to the South but angers many Northerners.

  • Brigham Young becomes governor

    President Fillmore names Brigham Young, president of the Mormon Church, governor of the Utah territory. From 1846 to 1847, Young leads thousands of disciples from Illinois to the central Utah valley, where he establishes Salt Lake City, the site for the Church's new temple.

  • Treaty with El Salvador

    Acting on long-held interest in gaining influence in Central America, the United States ratifies its first commercial treaty with El Salvador.

  • Whigs nominate General Winfield Scott

    The Whig National Convention nominates General Winfield Scott of New Jersey for the presidency and William Graham of North Carolina for the vice presidency. Both adhere to the strict enforcement of the Compromise of 1850.

  • Democrats gain seats

    In Congressional elections, Democrats gain three Senate seats for a 38-22 majority over the Whigs. The Democrats also pick up 19 seats in the House for a 159-71 majority. Meanwhile, following Pierce's election over the Whig candidate Scott, the Whig Party splits with Southern Whigs defecting and abstaining to protest the party's antislavery leadership.
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    Franklin Pierce

    He is from Hillsborough, NH. He went to Bowdoin College. He became a brigadier general in the Mexican-American War. He was a member of the U.S. Senate and representative. His brother served as a general in the Confederate Army during the Civil War. He retired and got away from the public.

  • Gadsden Purchase

    The Gadsden Purchase, negotiated by James Gadsden, U.S. minister to Mexico, is signed. At the cost of $15 million, the United States acquires more than 29,600 square miles of new territory in southwest Arizona and New Mexico. The purchase establishes the final boundaries of the United States and, by providing a strip of land to the Pacific Ocean, will be used a route for the Southern Pacific Railroad

  • Treaty of Kanagawa

    After nearly three centuries of Japanese isolation, Commodore Matthew Perry -- first ordered to Japan by President Fillmore -- signs the Treaty of Kanagawa, marking the beginning of the Pacific nation's trade with the rest of the world. The United States is permitted a consulate in Japan, and U.S. ships will be allowed to sail into Japanese ports for the purpose of conducting limited trade.

  • Kansas-Nebraska Act

    The Kansas-Nebraska Act is signed into law after being introduced by President Pierce's rival, Senator Stephen Douglas (Democrat - IL). The bill reopens the question of slavery in the West by repealing the Missouri Compromise of 1820, organizes the Kansas and Nebraska territories on the basis of “popular sovereignty,” and paves the way for the transcontinental railroad from Chicago to California.

  • Nationality laws amended

    Nationality laws are changed so that all children born abroad to U.S. parents are guaranteed American citizenship.

  • Whig National Convention nominates Fillmore

    The Whig National Convention nominates Millard Fillmore (also chosen by the pro-slavery contingent of the Know-Nothing Party) for President and Andrew J. Donelson for vice president.
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    James Buchanan

    He is from Cove Gap, PA. He went to Dickinson College. He did not have a military background. Before office, he was a member of U.S. representative, U.S. Senate, and secretary of state under James Polk. He did not have notable family members. After office, he retired and stayed out of public.

  • Mountain Meadow Massacre

    The Mountain Meadow Massacre in Utah results in the deaths of roughly 140 people. Paiute Indians and the Mormon Militia, incited by Mormon fanatic John D. Lee, kill emigrants heading for California. Lee stages the event in direct retaliation for President Buchanan's order to remove Mormon leader Brigham Young from his position as governor of Utah.

  • Congress Votes on Admitting Kansas

    The Senate votes to accept Kansas into the Union under the Lecompton Constitution after it has already been rejected in Kansas. The House votes to resubmit the Constitution to popular vote.

  • English Bill Passed

    Congress passes the English Bill after Representative William Hayden English (Democrat-Indiana) strikes a compromise between the House and Senate bills on the admission of Kansas to the Union. The bill effectively resubmits the Lecompton Constitution to Kansas voters with the attached incentive of land if ratified.

  • Southern Commercial Convention

    The Southern Commercial Convention meets in Vicksburg, Mississippi, and Southern slave owners advocate for the reopening of the African slave trade. A congressional act banned the slave trade in 1808.

  • Kansas Constitution Ratified

    The Kansas Constitution is ratified as an antislavery document by an overwhelming popular vote. A provisional state government is elected in December.
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    Abraham Lincoln

    He was from Larue County, KY. He did not go to college. Lincoln served in the military during the Black Hawk War in 1832. He volunteered for the Illinois militia and was elected as a captain of a company of volunteers. Before office, he was a member of the U.S. representative and Illinois State Legislature. Lincoln's son served as Secretary of War under Presidents James Garfield and Chester A. Arthur. Unfortunately, he died before his term was going to end.

  • Confederate Congress adopts Confederate Constitution

    The Confederate Congress unanimously adopts the Confederate Constitution, which declares the sovereignty of states and forbids the passage of any bill which outlaws slavery.

  • Emancipation Proclamation goes into effect

    President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation. With it, he freed all slaves in Confederate or contested areas of the South. However, the Proclamation did not include slaves in non-Confederate border states and in parts of the Confederacy under Union control.

  • National Banking Act

    The National Banking Act, designed by Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase, creates the system for a national bank. To supervise, Congress creates the “controller of the currency” position, which is first given to Hugh McCulloch on May 9, 1863.

  • Battle of Gettysburg

    The Battle of Gettysburg, the war's greatest engagement, occurs. In his invasion of the North, Lee makes a bid to smash through Union forces and take Washington, D.C., from the west with 75,000 troops. General George E. Meade, who replaced McClellan, meets him accidentally at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.

  • Gettysburg Address

    Lincoln makes his famous Gettysburg Address -- consisting of three short paragraphs -- on the bloodstained battlefield. Ceremonies take place which include the dedication of a national cemetery.
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    Andrew Johnson

    He is from Raleigh, NC. He did not go to college. He served in the military during the Cold War. Before office, he was Governor of Tennessee, U.S. Senate, U.S. representative, and Military Governor of Tennessee. His son served as his father's private secretary during his presidency. After office, he retired and stayed out of the public.

  • Black Code

    Lincoln makes his famous Gettysburg Address -- consisting of three short paragraphs -- on the bloodstained battlefield. Ceremonies take place which include the dedication of a national cemetery.

  • Replacing provisional governors

    Johnson orders provisional Governor Sharkey to turn over governorship of Mississippi to his elected successor. Over the next five weeks, Johnson issues similar orders to the provisional governors of Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, and Florida. These newly elected governments are populated with numerous ex-Confederate officials.

  • First Reconstruction Act

    With the mandate of the 1866 election, Congress (despite Johnson's veto) passes the First Reconstruction Act, setting up five military districts in the South, each under the direction of a presidentially-appointed military commander. The legislative body also passed the Army Appropriations Act, which lessens Johnson's control of the Army. Finally, Congress passes -- again over Johnson's veto.

  • Johnson suspends Secretary Stanton

    Johnson suspends Secretary Stanton from his position and commissions Ulysses S. Grant as ad interim secretary of war.

  • Johnson acquitted

    The Senate votes to acquit President Johnson on impeachment charges two and three. The Senate then adjourns and fails to vote on the remaining eight articles of impeachment.
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    Ulysses S. Grant

    He is from Point Pleasant, OH. He did not go to college. He junior officer in the Mexican-American War. He was the Commanding General of the Union Army. Before office, he was promoted general-in-chief. His second son served in the Union Army during the Civil War. After office, he went on trips and has several business ventures.

  • Annexation of Santo Domingo

    President Grant's military aide and private secretary Orville Babcock signs a treaty to annex Santo Domingo of the West Indies, and a second document to lease Samana Bay. The Senate defeats the annexation treaty on June 30, 1870, and never votes on the Samana Bay treaty.

  • Grant vetoes the Private Relief Bill

    Grant vetoes the Private Relief Bill and will continue to veto many additional relief bills during his two terms.

  • Fifteenth Amendment

    Black male suffrage becomes universal when the Fifteenth Amendment -- stipulating that no state shall deprive any citizen of the right to vote because of “race, color, or previous condition of servitude”

  • Fenian Army of Vermont

    Grant issues a proclamation against the attempts of the Fenian Brotherhood to damage Anglo-United States relations by attacking Canada. The next day, the Fenian Army of Vermont attempts to invade Canada but is driven back.

  • A new tariff is passed

    A new tariff is passed following debates about tariff reduction. The new law maintains most existing protectionist features.

  • The Federal Election Law

    The Federal Election Law passes, calling for federal supervision of elections in cities with populations greater than 20,000. The act is designed to ensure fair treatment of black voters in the South and is the second of three enforcement acts.

  • Grant vetoes inflation bill

    After vacillating on the issue, Grant vetoes the inflation bill, passed by Congress, which would have increased the money supply by $100 million to alleviate the effects of the depression. Grant understands the motivation behind the measure but believes that inflating the currency is a dangerous strategy.

  • Hawaiian Reciprocity Treaty.

    The Hawaiian Reciprocity Treaty is signed, making the islands a virtual protectorate of the United States. The treaty gives preferential and exclusive trade status to Hawaii and prevents the Hawaiians from giving any territory to a third power.

  • Specie Resumption Act

    The Specie Resumption Act is passed, allowing fractional currency and legal-tender notes to be redeemed for coin, beginning January 1, 1879. Sponsored by John Sherman, the bill also increases the number of national banks throughout the country. Grant sends a special message to Congress approving the bill.

  • Civil Rights Act of 1875

    Grant signs the Civil Rights Act of 1875, guaranteeing black Americans equal rights in public places and prohibiting their exclusion from jury duty. The act includes no enforcement provisions and will be declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1883. School integration, championed by the now-deceased Charles Sumner, is not included in the bill.
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    Rutherford B. Hayes

    He was from Delaware, OH. He went to Kenyon College. He served as a major in the 23rd Ohio Infantry in 1861 and, became a brevet major general. Before office, he was Governor of Ohio and a member of the U.S. representative. His second and third son both served in the Spanish-American War. After office, He retired to his home in Ohio.

  • Patrolling Mexican border

    With Mexican-Texas border incursions continuing, Hayes sends troops to patrol the nearly lawless Mexican border and cross it if necessary to pursue bandits. Mexican president Diaz protests and sends troops to the border as well. Ultimately, economic concerns motivate both parties to work towards a settlement.

  • Knights of Labor

    Founded in 1869 by Uriah S. Stephens, a tailor in Philadelphia, the Knights of Labor is established as a national organization. It is the first labor union to attempt to organize all workers and hopes to establish a worker-owned factory system. With rapid growth in the 1880s, the Knight membership peaks in 1886 and then goes into rapid decline.

  • U.S.-Samoa Treaty

    A U.S.-Samoan treaty is signed in Washington which gives the United States the right to establish a naval and coaling station at the port of Pago Pago; it also pledges American assistance to Samoa if a third country interferes with Samoan chiefs. The Senate ratifies the treaty on January 30.

  • Hayes limits Chinese immigration

    Hayes vetoes a bill which bans incoming vessels from carrying more than fifteen Chinese passengers. Hayes then works to negotiate changes to the Burlingame Treaty with China in order to set limits on Chinese immigration.

  • Hayes supports a canal

    In a speech to Congress, Hayes continues to support a Central American canal to unite the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Following the trip to America by French diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps -- the builder of the Suez Canal in Egypt.
  • Period: to

    James A. Garfield

    He was from Moreland Hills, OH. He went to Williams College. He was a major general in the Union Army. Before office, he was an Ohio State Senator and a U.S. representative. His son served as Secretary of the Interior under President Theodore Roosevelt. Unfortunately, he died before his term could end.

  • Garfield removes E. A. Merit

    Garfield removes E. A. Merit from the collectorship of the New York Customhouse after Conkling feels assured that the President would not make any such changes. Garfield then sends W. H. Robertson's name to the Senate as his replacement, intensifying the struggle between Garfield and Conkling.
  • Period: to

    Chester A. Arthur

    He was from Fairfield, VT. He went to Union College. He does not have a military background. Before office, he was a VP under James Garfield and a civil rights advocate. His son served as his father's private secretary during his presidency. After office, he returned to his private life in New York City.

  • Congress Ties Representation to Census

    Congress passes a bill mandating the use of the census for determining congressional representation, a move which increases the number of representatives in Congress to 325.

  • Edmunds Act Passes

    Congress passes the Edmunds Act, which excludes bigamists and polygamists from voting and holding office, and establishes a five-man “Utah commission” to supervise voting in the territory of Utah.

  • Steamboat Safety Bill vetoed

    Arthur vetoes the Carriage of Passengers at Sea Bill, a steamboat safety bill, claiming that it contains several major technical errors.

  • U.S.-Luxembourg Treaty

    The United States and Luxembourg conclude an extradition treaty in New York.

  • Alaskan Government Act passes

    Congress passes an act regarding civil government in Alaska. The territory had been ceded to the United States by Russia in an 1867 treaty.
  • Period: to

    Grover Cleveland

    He is from Caldwell, NJ. He did not go to college. He does not have a military background. Before office, he was a Mayor of Buffalo and Governor of New York. He does not have any notable family members. He returned to his private life in New York.

  • Cleveland Signs Presidential Succession Act

    President Grover Cleveland signed the Presidential Succession Act. The act specified that in the absence of a President and vice president, heads of executive departments would succeed to the presidency in the order in which the departments were created, starting with the secretary of state. The Presidential Succession Act of 1886 remained in force until 1947.

  • Cleveland vetoes military pensions

    Cleveland vetoes the first of several bills granting military pensions to Civil War Union veterans who had appealed to Congress after their claims were rejected by the Pensions Bureau. Hundreds of these claims are bogus.

  • Accepting the Statue of Liberty

    Cleveland recommends to Congress that the nation accept France's gift of the Statue of Liberty. The gift commemorates the alliance between the two countries during the Revolutionary War.

  • Cleveland Signs Chinese Exclusion Act

    President Grover Cleveland signed the Chinese Exclusion Act, which restricted Chinese immigration to the United States. The law prohibited Chinese immigrants who returned to China from coming back to the United States.

  • Department of Agriculture created

    Cleveland signs a bill creating the Department of Agriculture.
  • Period: to

    Benjamin Harrison

    He is from North Bend, OH. He went to Farmers' College and Miami University. He was commissioned as a captain and company commander. Before office, he was an Indiana State Senator and a U.S. Senate. His grandfather was William Henry Harrison. After office, he returned to Indianapolis and resumed his law practice, but stayed active in state and national politics.

  • Harrison's first message to Congress

    Harrison sends his first message to Congress. Among his recommendations are civil rights and civil service reform, naval legislation, improved conditions for railroad workers, and pensions for veterans.

  • Dependent Pension Bill passed

    The Dependent Pension Bill is passed, providing benefits to Union veterans as well as to their children and widows. Former President Cleveland vetoed the same bill three years earlier. By 1907, the law will have cost the government more than a billion dollars.

  • Sherman Anti-Trust Act

    The Sherman Anti-Trust Act is enacted, forbidding business practices that restrain trade and commerce or attempt to create monopolies. Until the presidency of Theodore Roosevelt, the government will rarely invoke the law: between the act's inception and 1901, only eighteen antitrust suits appear, with four of them coming against labor unions.

  • Sherman Silver Purchase Act

    Harrison signs into law the Sherman Silver Purchase Act after convincing free silver senators to compromise on the legislation. Support comes from farmers who argue that increased silver coinage will inflate the currency supply and raise prices, as well as from leaders of new western states with silver mines.

  • Harrison nominates Stephen B. Elkins as Secretary of War

    Harrison nominates Stephen B. Elkins as the new secretary of war.
  • Period: to

    Grover Cleveland

    He is from Caldwell, NJ. He did not go to college. He does not have a military background. Before office, he was a Mayor of Buffalo and Governor of New York. He does not have any notable family members. After office, He returned to his private life in New York.

  • Special session

    Cleveland calls a special session of Congress for August 7, with the intent of handling the economic crisis through tariff reform and the repeal of the silver-purchase law. Concerned about the low gold reserve, Cleveland wants to end the practice of issuing silver notes that can be redeemed in gold.

  • Sherman Silver Purchase Act

    The Sherman Silver Purchase Act, implemented under President Harrison, is repealed. Cleveland supports this policy shift.

  • Tariff revision bill

    The House passes a tariff revisions bill.

  • Wilson-Gorman Tariff Bill

    The Wilson-Gorman Tariff Bill becomes law without Cleveland's signature (he refuses to veto or sign the measure). The law includes an income tax of 2 percent on all personal income greater than $4,000 and on all corporate income above operating expenses.

  • Supreme Court nullifies income tax law

    The Supreme Court nullifies the income tax law in Pollock v. Farmers' Loan and Trust Company.
  • Period: to

    William McKinley

    He is from Niles, OH. He went to Allegheny College then transferred to Mount Union College. McKinley served as a private in the Union Army in 1861 and was later commissioned as a second lieutenant. Before office, he was Governor of Ohio and U.S. representative. His son served in the U.S. Army during World War I and later became a lawyer. Unfortunately, he died before his term could end.

  • Dingley Tariff Law

  • Volunteer Army Act

  • Erdman Arbitration Act

  • Peace treaty ratified

  • Platt Amendment

  • Period: to

    Theodore Roosevelt

    He was from New York, NY. He went to Harvard College. Roosevelt served as an assistant secretary of the Navy under President McKinley. Before office, he was a Governor of New York, Civil Service Commissioner, and Police Commissioner of New York City. His eldest son served as a soldier in both World War I and World War II and was a Medal of Honor recipient. His distant cousin is FDR. After office, he criticized Taft for what he saw as a lack of progressive action. And supported the Allied cause.

  • Chinese Exclusion Act

  • Coal miners strike

  • Newlands Reclamation Act

  • Panama Canal Commission

  • Sherman Anti-Trust Act

  • The Niagara Movement and the NAACP

  • National Monuments Act

  • Meat Inspection Act and the Pure Food and Drug Act

  • Immigration Act of 1907

  • Child labor law

  • Period: to

    William Howard Taft

    He is from Cincinnati, OH. He went to Yale University. He does not have a military background. Before office, Taft served as a civilian governor of the Philippines. He was also a judge of the Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals. His father, was a prominent attorney and government official who served as the Secretary of War and as Attorney General under President Ulysses S. Grant. After office, he continued his studies at law and became an author.

  • Calling for the Sixteenth Amendment

  • Postal Savings Bank Act

  • Dissolution of Standard Oil

  • Taft vetoes tariff reductions

  • Taft calls for federal budget

  • Period: to

    Woodrow Wilson

    He is from Staunton, VA. He earned a PhD from Johns Hopkins University. He does not have a military background. Before office, he was a Governor of New Jersey. His daughter was a singer, songwriter, and author, known for her performances and recordings. After office, he retired to his private life. And had a stroke which partially paralyzed him in 1919.

  • Seventeenth Amendment

  • Underwood-Simmons Tariff Act

  • Completing the Panama Canal

  • Federal Reserve Act

  • Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated

  • National Defense Act

  • Federal Farm Labor Act

  • Zimmermann Telegram released

  • Wartime Prohibition Act

  • Treaty of Versailles, League of Nations

  • Period: to

    Warren G. Harding

    He is from Blooming Grove, OH. He went to Ohio Central College. He does not have a military background. Before office, he served as an Ohio State Senate and as Lieutenant Governor of Ohio. He was also a teacher. His wife was known for her strong personality and involvement in his political career. Unfortunately, he died before his term can end.

  • Emergency Tariff Act

  • The Teapot Dome Scandal

  • Harding vetoes Soldiers' Bonus Bill

  • Period: to

    Calvin Coolidge

    He is from Plymouth Notch, Plymouth, VT. He went to Amherst College. He does not have a military service. Before office, he was a Mayor of Northampton, Massachusetts State Senator, Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts, and Governor of Massachusetts. His eldest son served in the U.S. Army during World War II and later worked in the business sector. After office, he retired to Northampton and became a public speaker, giving lectures.

  • Soldiers' Bonus Bill passes

  • New immigration law

  • Revenue Act becomes law

  • Air Commerce Act passed

  • Voting restrictions unconstitutional

  • Lindbergh completes his flight

  • Period: to

    Herbert Hoover

    He is from West Branch, IA. He went to Stanford University. He does not have a military background. Before office, he served as Director of the U.S. Bureau of Relief and Secretary of Commerce. His eldest son had a career in business and public service, serving as Undersecretary of State under President Dwight D. Eisenhower. After office, he kept in public life and continued his humanitarian efforts.

  • Agricultural Marketing Act

  • Construction of Empire State Building begins

  • Black Thursday

  • Black Tuesday

  • Bonus Loan passed

  • Period: to

    Franklin D. Roosevelt

    He is from Hyde Park, NY. He went to Harvard University. FDR was an Assistant Secretary of the Navy. Before office, he served as a New York State Senator, Governor of New York, and Vice Presidential Candidate. His distant cousin is Theodore Roosevelt. Unfortunately, just after his fourth term, he passed away.

  • FDR signs the Securities Exchange Act

  • FDR effectively announces the beginning of a second stage of his New Deal

  • Congress passes the Emergency Relief Appropriation

  • Roosevelt signs the National Labor Relations Act

  • FDR signs the Social Security Act

  • FDR signs the Neutrality Act

  • FDR signs the third Neutrality Act

  • FDR signs the Neutrality Act of 1939

  • FDR establishes the Office for Emergency Management

  • FDR signs the Selective Training and Service Act

  • FDR signs the Lend-Lease Act

  • FDR signs the Servicemen's Readjustment Act

  • Period: to

    Harry S. Truman

    He is from Lamar, MO. He did not go to college. Truman served as a Missouri National Guard and the United States Army during World War I. Later, he was serving as a captain. Before office, he was a vice president under FDR. He doesn't have any notable family members. After office, he continued as a public speaker and a politician.

  • Hiroshima

  • Nagasaki

  • Truman’s 21-point plan

  • Truman signs “Truman Doctrine”

  • National Security Act

  • Marshall Plan passed

  • British, U.S. airlift to Berlin

  • Truman proposes “Fair Deal”

  • Housing Act

  • Mutual Security Act

  • Period: to

    Dwight D. Eisenhower

    He is from Denison, TX. He went to Military Academy at West Point. He was the supreme commander of allied forces. Before office, he was the President of Columbia University and the Supreme Commander of NATO. His brother was a respected educator and served as president of several universities, including Kansas State University and Johns Hopkins University. After office, he stayed in public life as a public speaker and soon later was speaking for civil rights.

  • Submerged Lands Act

  • Refugee Relief Act of 1953

  • Eisenhower signs Wiley-Dander Seaway Act

  • Federal Highway Act

  • Social Security Act of 1956

  • Eisenhower proposes “Eisenhower Doctrine”

  • Civil Rights Act of 1957

  • National Defense Education Act

  • Hawaii becomes a state

  • Landrum-Griffin Act

  • Period: to

    John F. Kennedy

    He is from Brookline, MA. He went to Harvard University. He joined the U.S. Navy in 1941. Before office, he was apart of the U.S. representative and U.S. Senate. His brother, served as the United States Attorney General from 1961 to 1964 and later as a U.S. Senator from New York. Unfortunately, he died before his term could end.

  • Bay of Pigs

  • Missiles in Cuba

  • Kennedy Announces Cuban Missile Crisis

  • Kennedy signs nuclear test-ban

  • Period: to

    Lyndon B. Johnson

    He is from Stonewall, TX. He went to Texas State University. Johnson was serving as a Lieutenant Commander in the U.S. Naval Reserve. Before office, he was a member of the U.S. representative, U.S. Senate, and a vice president under JFK. He doesn't have notable family members. After office, he retired to his ranch and remained in public life.

  • Twenty-Fourth Amendment ratified

  • Johnson’s Great Society

  • Civil Rights Act of 1964

  • Economic Opportunity Act

  • Martin Luther King Jr. receives Nobel Peace Prize

  • Tet Offensive

  • Period: to

    Richard Nixon

    He is from Yorba Linda, CA. He went to Whittier College. He was a lieutenant commander in World War II. Before office, he was a vice president under Dwight Eisenhower, a U.S. Senator, and U.S. representative. He didn't have any notable family members. After office, he remained in public life as a public speaker and a writer.

  • The "Nixon Doctrine"

  • Nixon signs Selective Service Reform

  • Emergency Employment Act

  • Watergate scandal begins

  • Privacy Act of 1974

  • Nixon resigns

  • Period: to

    Gerald Ford

    He is from Omaha, NE. He went to University of Michigan. During WWII, he served as an officer on the aircraft carrier USS Monterey. And had rank of lieutenant commander. Before office, he was a vice president under Richard Nixon and a U.S. representative. He doesn't have notable family members. After office, he remained in public life as a writer, public speaker, and made a library.

  • Ford pardons Nixon

  • Federal Elections Campaign Act

  • Tax Reduction Act of 1975

  • Federal Election Campaign Act

  • Ford approves congressional election revisions

  • Period: to

    Jimmy Carter

    He is from Plains, GA. He went to Georgia Tech. He was a lieutenant during the 50s. Before office, he was a Georgia State Senate and Governor of Georgia. His eldest son had been involved in politics and business, working on his father's presidential campaigns and later pursuing a career in business. After office, he stayed in public life as a diplomatic missions and in writing.

  • Carter speaks at Notre Dame

  • Carter delivers graduation speech

  • Mediation at Camp David

  • Department of Education established

  • Anti-inflation program

  • Period: to

    Ronald Reagan

    He is from Tampico, IL. He went to Eureka College. He was serving as captain in the army in 1945. Before office, he hosted a television show and was a radio announcer. His brother was a radio and television broadcaster and a businessman. After office, he stayed in public life as a public speaker, made his own library, and involved in charitable organization.

  • Soviet grain embargo lifted

  • Reagan dismisses strikers

  • Negotiating with Soviet Union

  • Tax Equity & Fiscal Responsibility Act

  • Gas tax increase

  • Social Security reform becomes law

  • Gramm-Rudman Bill

  • Tax code revised

  • Water Quality Control Act

  • Gorbachev, Reagan sign treaty

  • Period: to

    George H. W. Bush

    He is from Milton, MA. He went to Yale University. He served as a lieutenant and was a bomb pilot in WWII. Before office, he was a vice president under Ronald Reagan, and had an oil business. His son was the 43rd president of the U.S. After office, he stayed in public life and became a public speaker. He also founded his own library and museum.

  • New Anti-Drug Law

  • New Taxes Proposed

  • Americans with Disabilities Act

  • 1991 Civil Rights Act

  • Supplemental Appropriations Act Signed

  • Period: to

    Bill Clinton

    He is from Hope, AR. He went to Georgetown University, then transferred to University of Oxford. He does not have a military background. Before office, he was a Governor of Arkansas. His half-brother is an actor and musician. After office, he remained in public life and became a public speaker. He also made the Clinton foundation and took many diplomatic missions.

  • Family Medical Leave Act

  • Explosion at the World Trade Center

  • Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act

  • Brady Act

  • Welfare restructured

  • Missile strikes Iraq

  • Balanced budget signed

  • Retaliatory attacks on Iraq

  • House votes to impeach Clinton

  • Clinton acquitted

  • Period: to

    George W. Bush

    He is from New Haven, CT. He went to Yale University. Bush served the Texas Air National Guard from 1968 to 1973. Before office, Bush was a Governor of Texas and apart of a group who purchased the Texas Rangers baseball team. His father was the 41st president of the U.S. After office, he stayed in public life as a public speaker and was apart of humanitarian work.

  • Bush bans abortion aid

  • Attacking Iraq

  • Trillion dollar tax cut

  • September 11 Terrorist Attacks

  • Bush delivers State of the Union

  • Further tax cuts

  • Bush signs third largest tax cut in history

  • Senate passes energy bill

  • Senate halts debate on same-sex marriage ban

  • Bush vetoes stem cell research

  • Period: to

    Barack Obama

    He is from Honolulu, HI. He went to Columbia University. Obama does not have a military background. Before office, he was a U.S. Senator and an Illinois State Senator. His father was a Kenyan economist and government official. After office, he stayed in public life as a public speaker. Him and his wife made a foundation called the Obama Foundation.

  • Executive order to close Guantánamo Bay

  • Haiti aid

  • School grants

  • Budget funding for NASA

  • Budget Control Act

  • American Jobs Act

  • Against insider trading

  • Agriculture Act of 2014

  • Clean Power Plan

  • Deal with Iran

  • Period: to

    Donald Trump

    He is from New York, NY. He went to Fordham University then to University of Pennsylvania. He does not have a military background. Before office, he was a television actor and a real estate developer. He does not have any notable family members. After office, he remained in republican politics.

  • Travel Ban

  • Tax cuts and job acts

  • Trump impeached

  • Economic shutdown and relief efforts

  • Pandemic campaign rally

  • Period: to

    Joe Biden

    He is from Scranton, PA. He went to University of Delaware. Biden does not have a military background. Before office, he was a U.S. Senate and a VP under Obama. His son, Hunter Biden, is a lawyer and businessman who has been involved in various business ventures. At this time, his term has not ended.