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Adam 'Sigma' Smith publishes the Wealth of Nations
Wealth could be infinite if governments did not intervene in markets and individual pursuit would aid the 'invisible hand' of market forces. -
Infrastructure
Empire transported goods through shipping, railroads and canal. Clipper ships helped transport high value, low volume goods, whilst the blue squadron of the Royal Navy defended cargo in the in Indian Ocean. Steamships became more popular after the Suez Canal was opened. 71% of British money channelled towards building railways went to regions of recent settlement e.g India. New waterways were created in India and Canada, with rivers often used as sources of exploration. -
Parliamentary Select Committee recommends a British withdrawal from West Africa
Viewed West African settlements as too costly. -
Attitude of the British government to imperialism begins to shift
Historically, British governments had taken a more passive approach to empire. The weak communication links, lack of accountability to the companies' and belief in Smith's laissez-faire economics consolidated this. The commercial benefits and rivalries with other European powers added to this moderate approval. However, increasing appeal of foreign export markets in an economic and colonial competition with other powers, who often imposed protection tariffs, forced intervention. -
Elementary Education Act
25% of the British population was illiterate. 2 years later, it was revealed that 96.75% of Indian population was illiterate. Schooling was reserved for a few privileged locals, and poverty and famine remained high. -
Disraeli delivers Crystal Palace speech
He famously asserted that the Conservatives were the Party of Empire. -
Panic of 1873
The opening of the Suez Canal rendered many vessels stationed around the Cape redundant, as they were too large to pass through the canal. Goods remained stored in the Cape and economic stagnation, known as the Long Depression, occurred for two decades. This was characterised by heavy unemployment in the basic industries of coal, iron, steel, engineering and shipbuilding. The City of Glasgow Bank went bankrupt as railway bonds collapsed, sales and output was outsourced to the Empire -
Benjamin Disraeli becomes Prime Minister
A jewish convert to Christianity. -
British share of global manufacturing production - 23%
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William Gladstone becomes PM for the 2nd time
A resounding victory over the Conservatives. He had promised to 'abstain from any territorial acquisition' and appointed a more moderate, liberal Lord Ripon as Viceroy of India. Seen as a reluctant imperialist, he led an inconsistent approach to British expansion and believed he 'picked up the pieces' from Disraeli. He preferred to attribute England's strength to Great Britain and Ireland. -
Imperial Federation League founded
In London, promoted the reorganisation of the British Empire into a federation -
Lord Salisbury becomes Prime Minister
He sought to re-conquer Sudan against the wishes of his Cabinet, as he feared losing out in the European rivalries. -
Gladstone's first Home Rule Bill defeated in Commons
The Government of Ireland Bill lost by 30 votes in the Commons, preventing the establishment of a devolved assembly in Ireland. -
Tariff rates
Average tariff rate in the UK - 6.1%
Average tariff rate in the USA - 29.9%
Demonstrated protectionism within the empire but British openness to international competition. -
Imperial Federation League disbanded
Symbolically suggested that colonial ties weren't actually that strong -
Empire's total trade reaches £745 million
Despite this, many upper-class Brits resented taxation spent on imperial defence, believing the Navy to be too expensive. -
Daily Mail newspaper founded
A pro-imperialist paper that targeted the lower-middle classes. Coupled with Boys Own Paper -
20% of Britain's imports, 33% of exports involving colonies for last 25 years
This was boosted by 'imperial preference', benefitting trade between constituent parts of the British Empire. Colonies surrendered their national sovereignty in exchange for British investment in local infrastructure e.g railways and increased borrowing power. Indigenous populations were prevented from developing manufacturing industries and often had to pay taxes to British administrators/companies. -
Landslide Conservative GE victory in 'khaki' election
Salisbury's Conservatives benefitted from pro-imperialist fervour around the Boer War to gain a 130-seat majority. The presence of demobilised British soldiers granted furlough from the war to vote gained this election its nickname. The conservatives pushed for 'good government and white rule' whilst the less enthusiastic Liberals stressed the need for education and eventual self-government. -
Victoria League founded
A non-political organisation that sought to unite the empire, partly founded by the imperialist Prime Minister Salisbury's niece. -
J.A Hobson publishes Imperialism
Claimed that imperialism was natural to nations with a capitalist economy, warranting profitable employment for public resources. This view was particularly prevalent among the aristocratic and professional classes. Hobson had worked for the Manchester Guardian during the Boer war, and viewed it as a capitalist plot by mine-owners. -
Empire Day celebrated
Children would salute the Union Jack, sing patriotic songs and listen to stories of Rhodes and Gordon. Symbolised the positive representation the Empire had in British culture, with History and Geography lessons glorifying British activity. Aimed to promote British patriotism and allegiance to the Crown. It was officially dissolved in 1958, replaced by Commonwealth Day. -
1902 Education Act passed
Improved schools and opened more secondary schools. -
Tariff Reform League founded
Joseph Chamberlain's organisation advocated for protectionist tariffs on imported goods from outside the Empire and tariff concessions on goods imported from within the Empire. Dubbed 'imperial preference', his campaign never succeeded but represented a debate around Empire's trade relationship with Britain. A staunch imperialist, Chamberlain had been Colonial Secretary for th 8 years previous. Further proposals included a United States of Empire, a common defence system, constructive imperialsm -
Steel Works Association created in Germany
This German industry cartel subsidised steel exports globally. It represented the rise in power of industrial Germany, which also was expanding its navy and threatening British hegemony. -
Entente Cordiale signed
France and Britain settled colonial disputes and began improved diplomatic relations. This was despite Britain having conflicts of interest with all European powers in the alliance system. -
Campbell-Bannerman's Liberals win a landslide GE
Policy of free trade was continued, Liberal government would continue for 9 years. -
Education (Provision of Meals) Act passed
In response to 1/3rd of conscripts being classed as unfit for army service in the Boer War partly due to malnutrition, this act provisioned free school meals. -
Triple Entente formed between France, Britain and Russia
Opposed the Triple Alliance of germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. -
Imperial College London founded
A merger of the Royal College of Science, the Royal School of Mines, and the City and Guilds College. The institution sought to rival German development in the technical and scientific industries. -
Robert Baden-Powell founds Boy Scouts movement
Championed adventure, service and team spirit, honing state school boys into uture soldiers of Empire. -
British ships deployed in the North Sea
Higher concentration of British military ships around Britain highlighted the deprioritisation of the British Empire -
Imports + Exports
Britain's main exports were insurance, shipping, steel, cotton, machinery and coal. 32% of all manufactured goods bought in the world came from Britain. 10% of all Britain's beef imports and 15% of all Britain's wheat imports came from Canada. Indian consumers benefitted from a 0% tariff on British goods compared to a 40% US tariff. Britain imported much cotton and tea from India. Britain imported wool and sugar from Australia, and improved refrigeration and international transport. EMP 1% ofGDP -
British investment
43% of British investment went to the Empire, increasing capital and economic development. Of this, 40% was spent on railways, and Iran's oil industry benefitted from British expertise in Abadan. Borrowed money from the City of London also came at lower interest rates. Owners and shareholders were the real winners of the chartered company era. -
British share in global manufacturing production - 13.6%
A 9.4% fall over 33 years, as Germany and the USA industrialised rapidly. Colonial food imports and cheap foreign labour depressed wages and undermined domestic food production industries, according to some. Additionally, the higher interest loans to Empire developed competition to British industries e.g Lanchashire's cotton that benefitted investors but undermined domestic industries. -
Britain declares war on Germany, joins WW1
Empire provided a tax base and additional troops for the war, though this did contribute to an anti-British sentiment of exploitation after the war. 210,000 Irishmen served in the British forces, comprised of 140,000 volunteers and 70,000 conscripts. 35,000 Irishmen would die. -
School of Oriental and African studies established
Aimed to promote the education of different languages, customs and religions where budding colonial administrators could be sent to. -
US President Wilson presents Fourteen Points
The principle of self-determination gained mainstream attention. British politicians moved towards trusteeship, where Britain would work with indigenous Africans by giving them governmental experience, stimulating economic growth and eventually grant them independence. The growth of nationalist movements, and the post-war dissolution of the Ottoman and Russian empires forced Britain to reframe the Empire as a 'family' of nations. -
Armistice signed, WW1 ends
15% of British goods and services were now exported to other countries, a fall of 15% pre-war. Destruction of European producers led to a rise in American and Japanese producers, and protectionist tariffs. Edelstein suggests the purchase of British goods, rather than the range of imports available to Britain (Empire provided less than 10% of foodstuffs to Britain) were the real gains of Empire. 56,638 Canadians, 59,330 Australians, 16,711 New Z, 7,121 South Africans, 62,056 Indians 3k Af died -
UK debt rises to £7.4 billion
Up from £650m at the start of the war. 10% of Britain's overseas investments were sold by the government to fund the war effort. -
Cambridge University create Imperial History professorship
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Treaty of Versailles signed
This treaty dealt specifically with Germany but represented the Paris Peace Conference overall. The League of Nations were established with the mandate system allocating former German and Ottoman territories to the British and French Empires. Their capabilities to gain independence were divided into categories A, B and C (e.g Syria, Tanganyika, New Guinea) -
British Empire Exhibition at Wembley
£2.2 million to build Wembley Stadium, with over 27 million people visiting the exhibition -
Britain returns to the Gold Standard
Britain sought to recreate the pre-war economic system, and re-introduced fixed exchange rates between countries. -
Colonial Office splits into two
Two separate departments, the Dominions Office and Colonial Office, were formed, pre-empting the Dominion legislation of the 30s. A separate India office remained. -
Empire Marketing Board
Promoted intra-empire trade through advertisement and events. Dissolved in 1933 due to budget cuts from the Depression. -
Hilton Young Commission Report published
Whilst the report recommended greater African participation, it favoured trusteeship involving white settlers in East Africa. Lord Passfield suggested the 'dual mandate' of white settlers and indigenous East Africans, however the settlers objected to the lack of Western education received by the indigenous Africans. -
Wall Street Crash, effects of the Great Depression begin
15% of Britain's GDP came from exports, down from 30% in 1913. Unemployment rose to 10.9%, up from the pre-war average of 6%. Coal, iron, steel and mining industries were hit hard. 44% of government spending was spent on interest payments from the war debts. -
Merger into Colonial Service
A centralised system with entrance exams, that required personnel with a general skill base and administrative qualities. Middle-class, Oxbridge graduated from Humanities often aspired to land a job in this service. Ralph Furse improved the recruitment and training of the service by using references and interviews. -
Great Depression causes global trade to fall by 16%
Gold Standard collapsed in 1931, and international trade worsened. Exports also fell. The world economy only recovered by re-arming vis-a-vis the rise of Hitler. Britain had aimed to treat Empire imports preferentially, and increased its own exports to the Empire to make up for lower sales domestically -
Ottawa Conference reinforces British protectionism
Britain resourcefully used Sterling to trade, quoting prices. Britain imposed a 10% tariff on imports except those coming from Crown Colonies. -
George V Christmas Day message
Broadcast to all colonies, imposing British patriotism and culture on the colonies. This tradition continues to the present day as part of the Commonwealth. -
Colonial Development and Welfare Act
Allocated funds for healthcare, education and infrastructure projects across Britain's colonies. -
West Indies Calling premieres on the BBC
The Ministry of Information sought to challenge racism in Britain and demonstrate how people from different ethnic backgrounds contributed to the war effort. -
Bretton Woods Conference
Created the International Monetary Fund, and prompted the US Dollar to become the world's reserve currency. Combined with Britain's wartime debts to the US and balance of payments deficit, this caused the US to wield considerable influence over Britain. -
Britiain's economic position
Debt to GDP ratio had risen from 110% to 240%, were indebted to the US from the Lend-Lease Agreements and were forced to sell overseas assets e.g American Viscose Corporation. Keynes predicted a $9Bn Balance of Payments deficit. The dollar shortage led Britain to impose quotas on imports. -
Attlee's Labour wins landslide in General Election
Having served in the coalition war cabinet, Attlee was concerned with internal affairs and rebuilding Britain's economy. To this end, he wanted to stay close to the US and secure Germany, and Europe's, security. He feared Stalinist expansion. Counting of votes was delayed until 26 July, explaining why Attlee only joined the Potsdam Conference halfway through. Welfare state envisioned in the Beveridge report was realised, and people questioned the morality of empire vis-a-vis domestic society -
Colonial Development and Welfare Act
Allocated £100 million over a ten-year period for economic and social development across Britain's colonial territories. RUNS CONTrary to the idea that the British government preferred investing in a welfare state, and that reliance on the US prevented colonial territories from being supported. British preferential trade agreements with its colonies separated it from the US and Europe, and the British remained imperial in their attitudes. -
Empire Windrush docks at Tilbury
British government sought to reinforce the British workforce that suffered from labour shortages. 500 Jamaicans from Kingston had boarded the ship, and 1/3 of the migrants were RAF veterans. -
British government devalues the Sterling
from £1 = $4.03 to £1 = $2.80. Some Historians argue that Britain aimed to convert the Empire into an informal economic group, comparable to that of Latin America. -
British Nationality Act comes into effect
Gave every Commonwealth citizen the right to live and work in the UK, it sought to boost the new government-funded National Health Service and London Transport. Irish emigration ensued, with 12% of British nurses being Irish nationals by 1971. By the 1960s, Health Minister Enoch Powell had recruited 18,000 doctors from South Asia. -
Rationing concludes in Britain
Luftwaffe bombing of buildings, homes and factories had added to Britain's economic woes, demonstrated by the long era of rationing. 11.7 milion tonnes of shipping had been sunk by German U-boats during the war. -
Imports and Exports
63% of Britain's imports came from, and 58% of Britain's exports went to, Western Europe -
Empire's exports increase over £1.1Bn in 10 years
from £319.6 million to £1.5bn -
Anthony Eden resigns as Prime Minister
His disaster in Suez demonstrated British aggression being condemned by the international community. Foreign Secretary Lloyd attributed Suez as a scapegoat for flailing British economic and political power in the world. -
Harold Macmillan appointed Prime Minister
Macmillan would later argue that Britain was in control of the decolonisation process throughout. -
European Economic Community founded
The rapid recovery of Western Europe, sponsored by the US Marshall Plan (Britain had received £3.12Bn/26% Marshall Aid), demonstrated to Britain that its economic future lay with Europe. The rapid growth of the EEC was accompanied by multinational companies who disregarded old colonial structures. US economic leverage would soon influence British foreign policy e.g Suez -
Notting Hill race riots
The Teddy Boy youth groups attacked Caribbean immigrants in Notting Hill. Ten years previous, Oswald Mosley had launched the anti-immigration Union movement. -
Britain creates European Free Trade Association
Comprised of Austria, Portugal, Sweden, Denmark and Norway, this organisation rivalled the EEC but was undermined by the fact its member states did not trade with each other. -
PM Macmillan delivers "Wind of Change" speech to South African Parliament
A Conservative, Macmillan proclaimed in Cape Town that "the wind of change is blowing through this continent and whether we like it or not, this growth of national consciousness is a political fact". This concerned settlers in Kenya and the Central African Federation. He also referenced the full sovereignty of Commonwealth states, and expressed his desire for African and Asian states to develop as capitalist. He denounced the racial policies of South Africa that denied the "political destinies" -
Empire Day abolished
Symbolically demonstrated the distancing of the British public from Empire to Western Europe and the US, reflecting economic and cultural ties shifting. Despite this, a nostalgia for Empire remained due to the victory over fascism in WWII. Churches, sport, language and customs remain influenced by Britain in many former colonies in the present day. -
Commonwealth Immigrants Act
Immigration had peaked between the years 1960 and 1962. Despite the constraints this act put on immigration, 50,000 migrants arrived per year consecutively until 1965. 1950-1955 saw 358,000 people move from the UK to other countries, however. Immigration was prevented for 'former colonial subjects', and those with in-demand skills and pre-arranged employment were prioritised. Black and Asian immigrants were majoratively put on the 'waiting list', the British public approved the act at 70% -
Race Relations Act
Faced with a 90% disapproval of mixed marriages, the Act made it illegal to discriminate against people based on ethnicity. Bengalis were often attacked in East End, Bradford and Luton -
De Gaulle vetoes Britain's accession to the EEC
Prevented the material growth of British manufacturing industries. -
British government devalues Sterling further
£1 = $2.80 to £1 = $2.40, aimed to increase exports but was undermined by Britain's unproductive manufacturing industries. -
Enoch Powell delivers "Rivers of Blood" speech
Summarised inconsistent British views towards immigration Whilst many Brits were grateful for the jobs immigrants took in shortaged industries and their contributions in wartime, racism and intolerance was common. Followed the 1964 election where victorious Conservative MP did not distance himself from a racist slogan.